Neopaganism

(Difference between revisions)

Current revision

Neopaganism (sometimes Neo-Paganism, meaning "New Paganism") describes a heterogeneous group of modern religions, many of which attempt to revive ancient, mainly European pre-Christian religions. Some Neopagans stress their connections with older forms of Paganism in terms of "underground" continuity.

Neopaganist beliefs and practices are extremely diverse, and tend towards syncretic melding of once-diverse practices and beliefs. It has been said that there are as many Neopagan belief systems as there are Neopagans. However, while Neopaganism tends towards individualism, many adherents share a body of common precepts, including a reverence for nature or active ecology, Goddess and/or Horned God veneration, use of ancient mythologies, the belief in "magick," and often the belief in reincarnation.

Neopaganism is most commonly associated with mythology originated in the pre-Christian religions of northwestern Europe. However, the term also applies to modern revivals of other cults and belief systems, such as those of Isis, Mithra and of the state religion of ancient Rome, and to non-reconstructionist Pagan belief systems developed within modern times.

 However, in Britain today, the term is most commonly associated with a Celtic themed approach. Indeed, Wicca in Britain is now so widespread that the two forms of Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca have been submerged in a wave of modern offshoots, much of it from the United States. Much of this was inspired directly or indirectly by the publication of The Tree by Raymond Buckland, detailing the tradition of [[Seax-Wica]]; prior to this, Wicca had been unpublished and secret in nature. After it, people started creating new orders on their own, to the lasting irritation of the Gardnerians.
-Wicca has been arguably the most well organised and influential form of Neopaganism until the mid '80s, perhaps justifying a tendency by some Wiccans to claim for themselves the priesthood of the Neopagan community. Other Neopagan traditions do not see it so. This is sometimes a flashpoint for considerable argument.
+Wicca has been arguably the most well organized and influential form of Neopaganism until the mid '80s, perhaps justifying a tendency by some Wiccans to claim for themselves the priesthood of the Neopagan community. Other Neopagan traditions do not see it so. This is sometimes a flashpoint for considerable argument.
 == Mythological and religious sources ==
-Many - but not all - Neopagans and Neopagan traditions incorporate ancient mythology into their beliefs and practices. Wicca in particular is sometimes referred to by its proponents as the "Old Religion", a term popularised by Margaret Murray in the 1920s. Its use until the 1990s drew on  a perceived underground European Paganism and supposed ancient "Goddess religions". These models are now largely discredited, notably by [[Ronald Hutton]], and allusions are now more cautiously made to local folk healers/small groups, and a plurality of ancient "Goddess traditions", among others. However, while Neopagans draw from old religious traditions, they also adapt them. The mythologies of the ancient civilizations are not generally considered to be literally factual or historical in the sense that the [[Bible]] is claimed historical by [[fundamentalism|fundamentalists]]. Nor are they considered to be [[scripture]], as most Neopagans are resistant to the concept of scripture.
+Many - but not all - Neopagans and Neopagan traditions incorporate ancient mythology into their beliefs and practices. Wicca in particular is sometimes referred to by its proponents as the "Old Religion", a term popularized by Margaret Murray in the 1920s. Its use until the 1990s drew on  a perceived underground European Paganism and supposed ancient "Goddess religions". These models are now largely discredited, notably by [[Ronald Hutton]], and allusions are now more cautiously made to local folk healers/small groups, and a plurality of ancient "Goddess traditions", among others. However, while Neopagans draw from old religious traditions, they also adapt them. The mythologies of the ancient civilizations are not generally considered to be literally factual or historical in the sense that the [[Bible]] is claimed historical by [[fundamentalism|fundamentalists]]. Nor are they considered to be [[scripture]], as most Neopagans are resistant to the concept of scripture.
 The [[mythology|mythological]] sources of Neopaganism are many, including [[Celtic mythology|Celtic]], [[Norse mythology|Norse]], [[Greek mythology|Greek]], [[Roman mythology|Roman]], [[Sumerian Mythology|Sumerian]], [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian]] and others. There is probably no widely known mythology or religious tradition that has not been used as a source by some group at some time. Some groups focus on one tradition; others draw from several or many. All mythologies are believed to contain truth, seen from different perspectives. Neopagans seemingly borrow or adapt from any tradition they find useful. For example, the [[Charge of the Goddess]], a text by [[Doreen Valiente]], used materials from the Gospel of Aradia by Charles Leland (1901), and Aleister Crowley's writings. It is commonly used to [[Invocation|invoke]] the "[[Goddess]]", beginning with the words: "Listen to the words of the Great Mother, Who of old was called [[Artemis]], [[`Ashtart|Astarte]], [[Dione (mythology)|Dione]], [[Melusine]], [[Aphrodite]], [[Cerridwen]], [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]], [[Arionrhod]], [[Brigid]], and by many other names", showing a glimpse of Neopagan eclecticism.
 Most Neopagans do not have distinct [[temple|temples]], usually holding rituals in private homes or sacred groves and other outdoor locations. Many adherents keep their faith secret for fear of [[Religious persecution|repercussions]]. Many also practice their faith as "solitaries", and work within no fixed spiritual community.
-A UK study by [[Ronald Hutton]] compared a number of different sources (including membership lists of major organisations, attendance at major events, subscriptions to magazines, etc.) and used standard models for extrapolating likely numbers. This has to estimate multiple membership overlap and number of persons represented by each person attending an event. This concluded at adherence of 250,000, roughly equivalent to the national [[Hindu]] community.
+A UK study by [[Ronald Hutton]] compared a number of different sources (including membership lists of major organizations, attendance at major events, subscriptions to magazines, etc.) and used standard models for extrapolating likely numbers. This has to estimate multiple membership overlap and number of persons represented by each person attending an event. This concluded at adherence of 250,000, roughly equivalent to the national [[Hindu]] community.
 The [http://www.cog.org Covenant of the Goddess] conducted a poll of U.S. and Canadian Neopagans in [[1999]] that estimated the population in those countries at 768,400 (see http://www.cog.org/cogpoll_final.html). This would seem to support the view that there are at least one million worldwide. This poll was not scientific and represents a self selected subset of all Neopagans, but it does provide some interesting insights that confirm what many Neopagans have observed anecdotally. Some other statistics from this poll are:
 Many Neopagans believe that there is a single [[divinity]], a life force of the universe, who is [[immanent]] in the world. The various names and archetypes which they worship are seen not as truly separate individuals, but as facets, or faces, of something that is far beyond our human abilities to see, know, or understand. Rather than attempt to describe the indescribable, they approach the divine through one of its many aspects. This is claimed to be a genuinely new [[theology]], particularly by critics, although it is a common concept, especially in [[Eastern philosophy]] and can be traced in Western thinking to the [[ancient Egypt]]ian concept of divinity &mdash; the ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] word for god, ''netjer'', is sometimes claimed to have literally meant "all one".  Hutton considers ancient Pagans did not see "All Goddesses as one Goddess; all Gods as one God" [''sic''] (though his expertise is limited to the Pagans of the prehistoric British Isles).  As such, some more "traditional" approaches to paganism are [[polytheistic]] rather than [[pantheistic]], and worship their [[wiktionary:pantheon|pantheon]] while acknowledging others that do not affect their lives.
-Ancient paganism, particularly in [[Mediterranean]] societies, tended to regard beliefs as valid insomuch as they were part of the traditions and customs, or [[cultural patrimony]] of the people. Moreover, as Christianity became a rising force in the [[Mediterranean]] world, many authors wrote arguments against Christian claims and in defence of the traditional religions that give us insight into their structure. Most ancient Western religions identified a single source of divinity with ranks of lesser divinities below them till one reached the tier containing deified mortals such as [[Greece|Greek]] heroes, teachers and [[Roman emperors]]. [[Porphyry]], in particular, makes this clear in the surviving fragments of ''[[Against the Christians]]'', in which he attempts to claim Jesus for this "heroic tier."
+Ancient paganism, particularly in [[Mediterranean]] societies, tended to regard beliefs as valid insomuch as they were part of the traditions and customs, or [[cultural patrimony]] of the people. Moreover, as Christianity became a rising force in the [[Mediterranean]] world, many authors wrote arguments against Christian claims and in defense of the traditional religions that give us insight into their structure. Most ancient Western religions identified a single source of divinity with ranks of lesser divinities below them till one reached the tier containing deified mortals such as [[Greece|Greek]] heroes, teachers and [[Roman emperors]]. [[Porphyry]], in particular, makes this clear in the surviving fragments of ''[[Against the Christians]]'', in which he attempts to claim Jesus for this "heroic tier."
-For [[Wicca]]ns, divinity is bipolar as two bodies dominate: Goddess and God, with many lesser aspects. For [[Heathen]]s, ([[Nordic mythology|Nordics]], [[Celtic mythology|Celtics]], [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptians]], and [[Greek mythology|Greek]]s), divinity is polytheistic. For [[Druid]]s and [[High Magician]]s there is an overall One but other divinities are also recognised. Of Goddess worshippers, many are [[monotheistic]], believing in one Goddess, while others are polytheistic, believing that the one Goddess can be worshipped in many different forms.
+For [[Wicca]]ns, divinity is bipolar as two bodies dominate: Goddess and God, with many lesser aspects. For [[Heathen]]s, ([[Nordic mythology|Nordics]], [[Celtic mythology|Celtics]], [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptians]], and [[Greek mythology|Greek]]s), divinity is polytheistic. For [[Druid]]s and [[High Magician]]s there is an overall One but other divinities are also recognized. Of Goddess worshipers, many are [[monotheistic]], believing in one Goddess, while others are polytheistic, believing that the one Goddess can be worshiped in many different forms.
 == Festivals ==
 While not identical, Hellenic (Greek) and Roman religion would have been difficult mto fully disentangle from each other, even in late antiquity, owing to the cultural exchanges and diffusion of cults and philosophies during the Roman imperial period. While some of the Hard Roman Reconstructionists, particularly those to be found in the [[micronation]] of [http://www.novaroma.org Nova Roma] would seem to view the practice with some disdain, judging from discussions on the [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ReligioRomana ReligionRomana] list, finding modern Pagans who combine Greek and Roman observances is not difficult.
-Among online sources, the most popular form of [[Hellenic Paganism]] (or [[Greek reconstructionism|Hellenic Reconstructionism]]) goes by the name of [[Hellenismos]], and Roman Paganism often is known as the [[Religio Romana]].
+Among on-line sources, the most popular form of [[Hellenic Paganism]] (or [[Greek reconstructionism|Hellenic Reconstructionism]]) goes by the name of [[Hellenismos]], and Roman Paganism often is known as the [[Religio Romana]].
 === Celtic-based ===
 Some [[Unitarian Universalism|Unitarian Universalists]] are Pagan. Unitarian Universalism is a non-dogmatic, non-creedal, individual search for truth. Unitarian Universalists seek to find individual truth, incorporating a variety of Pagan and non-Pagan beliefs; so most UU Pagans do not identify with any specific Pagan tradition. They can be considered Neopagans.
-Many neopagans self-identify as "eclectic", taking their practices and knowledge from a varity of sources to synthesize a personal understanding and expression of their beliefs.
+Many neopagans self-identify as "eclectic", taking their practices and knowledge from a variety of sources to synthesize a personal understanding and expression of their beliefs.
 == Terms for kinds of Neopagan worship ==
-Most Neopagans worship various Gods and Goddessesm but this may not be actually polytheistic; some believe as Dion Fortune wrote "All Gods are One God, All Goddesses are One Goddess." Many neopagans (particularly Wiccans) are dualists, or panentheists, but there are also polytheists, some are animists, and some believe in the deity within. The terms are defined below:
+Most Neopagans worship various Gods and Goddesses but this may not be actually polytheistic; some believe as Dion Fortune wrote "All Gods are One God, All Goddesses are One Goddess." Many neopagans (particularly Wiccans) are dualists, or panentheists, but there are also polytheists, some are animists, and some believe in the deity within. The terms are defined below:
 *[[Animism]] is the belief that spirits inhabit every existing thing, including plants, minerals, animals and, including all the elements, air, water, earth, and fire. Since a spirit pervades every piece of living matter, an individual can absorb its essence by eating it.  For example, ingesting the brains of a particularly clever creature will impart its intelligence to the ingester.  Animism was probably the first form of worship.
 *[[Dualism]] (sometimes known as [[Ditheism]]) is the belief that there are only two fundamental things or substances or constituents of things in the world at large or in the human soul. Most commonly, this implies a God and a Devil-god, absolute good and absolute evil, or spirit and matter.  Some sects of [[Gnosticism]] were dualist in this sense.  Another example, from '''neopaganism''', is the existence of a Goddess and God, neither of which is either good or evil, but each of which exists simultaneously and balances the other despite their mutual independence.
-*[[Polytheism]] is the belief in more than one god(dess).  Polytheism often involves the worship of a heavenly pantheon of kindred gods, with one chief god who typically sits as lord.  In addition, a polytheist may show respect to lesser spirits which are not part of the gods' pantheon, but which may be associated with specific localities, plants, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_element#Classical_elements_in_Greece elements], other-worldy realms, or mind-states.  A polytheist may also believe in the existence of gods worshipped outside his own culture.  In a form of polytheism more closely related to henotheism (such as [[Mormonism]]), one god is supreme and the others are ancillary and do not have the same level of godhead ("god-ness").
+*[[Polytheism]] is the belief in more than one god(dess).  Polytheism often involves the worship of a heavenly pantheon of kindred gods, with one chief god who typically sits as lord.  In addition, a polytheist may show respect to lesser spirits which are not part of the gods' pantheon, but which may be associated with specific localities, plants, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_element#Classical_elements_in_Greece elements], other-worldly realms, or mind-states.  A polytheist may also believe in the existence of gods worshiped outside his own culture.  In a form of polytheism more closely related to henotheism (such as [[Mormonism]]), one god is supreme and the others are ancillary and do not have the same level of godhead ("god-ness").
 *[[Henotheism]] is the worship of many gods who are but faces of a single god.  Forms of late Greek and Roman classical religion became henotheistic as the old polytheistic myths were rationalized to fit the newer monotheistic philosophy.  Most forms of modern [[Hinduism]] are also  henotheistic.
 The term "Neopagan" is used by academics and adherents alike to denote those [[Pagan]] traditions which are largely modern in origin, or which are conceived as reconstructions of ancient practices.
-Some critics claim that Neopagans cannot legitimately be considered practitioners of "true" Pagan religion, citing that in the [[history of ideas]] it is understood that revivals are not identical to their models: e.g., Roman sculpture compared to the [[neoclassicism]] of, for example, [[Antonio Canova]].  Furthermore, a revival or reconstruction can only be as true to the original as the reference material from which it draws, and many alleged Pagan reconstructions have been shown to owe more to erroneous scholarship (such as that of [[Margaret Murray]]) or even to outright [[fakelore]] than to any historically authentic Pagan religious practice. Claims of inherited, unwritten, [[underground culture|underground]] Pagan traditions, which would convey authenticity while conveniently avoiding academic scrutiny, were formerly the standard counter to such observations.  These claims are viewed with increasing scepticism by Neopagans, though a small minority adhere to them.
+Some critics claim that Neopagans cannot legitimately be considered practitioners of "true" Pagan religion, citing that in the [[history of ideas]] it is understood that revivals are not identical to their models: e.g., Roman sculpture compared to the [[neoclassicism]] of, for example, [[Antonio Canova]].  Furthermore, a revival or reconstruction can only be as true to the original as the reference material from which it draws, and many alleged Pagan reconstructions have been shown to owe more to erroneous scholarship (such as that of [[Margaret Murray]]) or even to outright [[fakelore]] than to any historically authentic Pagan religious practice. Claims of inherited, unwritten, [[underground culture|underground]] Pagan traditions, which would convey authenticity while conveniently avoiding academic scrutiny, were formerly the standard counter to such observations.  These claims are viewed with increasing skepticism by Neopagans, though a small minority adhere to them.
 However, no accepted definition of the term "Pagan" requires unbroken continuity with earlier forms; the term is applied according to what the adherent believes, not according to the historical provenance of those beliefs.  So while Neo-Egyptian spirituality may not be the same thing as its original, both are technically Pagan (albeit very different varieties).
-The usage of the term is further complicated by [[paganism]] apparently having arisen in the 18th or 19th century at the earliest as a term for a primitive state of religious belief, rather than a group of beliefs.  (The term ''pagan'' is much older than ''paganism''.) While it may therefore be possible to revive a Pagan religion or tradition, it is not possible to revive 'paganism' as such, since the term described a condition and not a set of beliefs.  It is also misleading to regard individual Pagan traditions, new or old, as subsets of Paganism; it is more accurate to regard 'Paganism' as a disparaging and generalising label applied to a wide variety of belief systems.
+The usage of the term is further complicated by [[paganism]] apparently having arisen in the 18th or 19th century at the earliest as a term for a primitive state of religious belief, rather than a group of beliefs.  (The term ''pagan'' is much older than ''paganism''.) While it may therefore be possible to revive a Pagan religion or tradition, it is not possible to revive 'paganism' as such, since the term described a condition and not a set of beliefs.  It is also misleading to regard individual Pagan traditions, new or old, as subsets of Paganism; it is more accurate to regard 'Paganism' as a disparaging and generalizing label applied to a wide variety of belief systems.
-The term Neopaganism does provide a means of distinguishing between those religions which have continued through history and those which consist of an attempt to revive or emulate earlier faiths.  The argument for using it is that without the 'neo' prefix, there is a misleading implication of unbroken connection (and moral identification) with the pagan traditions of the past, since there is no difference between the label applied to a contemporary 'pagan' and an ancient one.  Some modern pagans within the community desire exactly this removal of distinction, since the movement gains authority and relevance by appearing to have its roots in ancient tradition. Others within contemporary paganism consider this dishonest, and emphasise that the modern practice is connected with the old only by aspiration.
+The term Neopaganism does provide a means of distinguishing between those religions which have continued through history and those which consist of an attempt to revive or emulate earlier faiths.  The argument for using it is that without the 'neo' prefix, there is a misleading implication of unbroken connection (and moral identification) with the pagan traditions of the past, since there is no difference between the label applied to a contemporary 'pagan' and an ancient one.  Some modern pagans within the community desire exactly this removal of distinction, since the movement gains authority and relevance by appearing to have its roots in ancient tradition. Others within contemporary paganism consider this dishonest, and emphasize that the modern practice is connected with the old only by aspiration.
 Difficulties have arisen following attempts to revive supposed elements of ancient Paganism whose existence has later proven to be tenuous.  A case in point is [[Eostre]], a goddess sufficiently popular to have had the modern [[Spring Equinox]] festival of [[Ostara]] named after her and presented as the historical forerunner of [[Easter]].  However, according to recent statements from academic sources, [[Eostre]] never existed as a figure of worship; she was invented by the 8th century scribe [[Bede]] [http://www.themercury.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5936,12666249%255E3462,00.html], who misunderstood second-hand reports.
-Although some Neopagans dismiss such academic conclusions as irrelevant to their beliefs, the majority accept them. They are not disheartened when the evidence suggests that their beliefs have been founded on a misreading of history or upon [[fakelore]], and instead contend that any goddess who is worshipped is 'real', whether she previously existed in history or not [http://www.witchvox.com/wren/wn_detaila.html?id=12531].
+Although some Neopagans dismiss such academic conclusions as irrelevant to their beliefs, the majority accept them. They are not disheartened when the evidence suggests that their beliefs have been founded on a misreading of history or upon [[fakelore]], and instead contend that any goddess who is worshiped is 'real', whether she previously existed in history or not [http://www.witchvox.com/wren/wn_detaila.html?id=12531].
 ==''Neo-pagan'' as used in literary criticism==

Neopaganism

Current revision

History of Neopaganism

Mythological and religious sources

An Earth-based religion

Witchcraft

Number of adherents

Concepts of divinity

Festivals

Traditions

Wicca

Heathenism

Hellenism, Romanism and Graeco-Roman Paganism

Celtic-based

Slavic

Baltic

Ancient Near East-based

Modern

Terms for kinds of Neopagan worship

Usage of the term 'Neopagan' in different quarters

Neo-pagan as used in literary criticism

First Modern Appearance of the Term

See also

External links