Thelemapedia - User contributions [en]

Al Hallaj

2005-08-06T15:40:48Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Mansur Al-Hallaj''' (c. 858 - March 26, 922) was a Persian mystic, writer and teacher of [[Sufism]]. His full name was ''Abu al-Mughith al-Husayn ibn Mansur al-Hallaj''.

He was born around 858 in Tur, Iran to a wool seller. Al-Hallaj's grandfather may have been a [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]]. His father lived a simple life, and this form of lifestyle greatly interested the young al-Hallaj. As a youngster he memorized the [[Qur'an]] and would often retreat from worldly pursuits to join other mystics in study.

Al-Hallaj would later marry and make a pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]. After his trip to the holy city, he traveled extensively and wrote and taught along the way. He travelled as far as [[India]] and Central Asia gaining many followers, many of which accompanied him on his second and third trips to Mecca. After this period of travel, he settled down in the Abbasid capital of Baghdad.

Among other Sufis, Al-Hallaj was an anomaly, many sufi masters felt that it was inappropriate to share mysticism with the masses, yet Al-Hallaj openly did so in his writings and through his teachings. He would begin to make enemies, and the rulers saw him as a threat. This was exacerbated by times when he would fall into trances which he attributed to being in the presence of [[Islamic Godforms|God]]. During one of these trances, he would utter ''Ana al-Haqq'', meaning "I am the Truth" and also, "In my turban is wrapped nothing but God?" which was taken to mean that he was claiming to be [[Islamic Godforms|God]], as Al-Haqq is one of the [[99 names of God|Ninety Nine Names of Allah]].

This utterance would lead him to a long trial, and subsequent imprisonment for eleven years in a Baghdad jail. In the end, he would be tortured and publicly crucified by the Abbasid rulers for what they deemed as a heresy. Many accounts tell of Al-Hallaj's calm demeanor even while he was being tortured, and indicate that he forgave those who had executed him. He died on March 26, 922.

His writings are very important not only to Sufis, but to all Muslims. Many [[Thelema|Thelemites]] also make use of his teachings, especially in terms of his identification as God - a central [[gnostic]] principle. His example is seen by some as one that should be emulated, especially his calm demeanor in the face of torture and his forgiving of his tormentors. Many honor him as an adept that came to realize the inherent divine nature of all men and women. Others continue to see him as a heretic.

==See also==
*[[Sufism]]

==External link==
* [http://www.sufimaster.org/husayn.htm Biography from sufimaster.org]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Hallaj Al-Hallaj]''. Retrieved on July 10. 2005.

[[Category:Sufism]][[Category:Mystics]][[Category:Islam]]

Talk:Ramsey Dukes

2005-07-22T13:22:22Z

Fr. Zabed:

93. References missing 93 93/93. [[User:Fr. Zabed|Fr. Zabed]]

Abrahamic religion

2005-07-21T19:56:28Z

Fr. Zabed:

An '''Abrahamic religion''' (also referred to as '''desert [[monotheism]]''') is a term sometimes used to refer to a religion derived from an ancient Semitic tradition attributed to [[Abraham]], a great patriarch described in the [[Torah]], the [[Bible]], and the [[Qur'an]]. This group of largely monotheistic religions, in which many include [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]], comprises about half of the world's religious adherents.

Muslims refer to adherents of most Abrahamic religions as fellow People of the Book, "the Book" symbolizing divine scripture, such as the Bible, Torah, and Qur'an. They see Abraham as one of the most important of the many prophets sent by God. Many Christians generally do not view themselves as part of an "Abrahamic religion," but view Abraham as an early figure of faith. Jews see Abraham as the founder of the people of Israel and the ancestor of their people.

Apart from Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, a number of other religions in the Semitic tradition are generally, but not universally, considered Abrahamic. Other religions sometimes considered Abrahamic religions include the [[Bahá'í Faith]], [[Druze]], [[Mandaeanism]], [[Sikhism]], and the [[Rastafari movement]]. What constitutes an Abrahamic religion varies from each observer's point of view, as a universal classification system cannot be agreed on by everyone.

==Overview==

All the Abrahamic religions are derived to some extent from [[Judaism]] as practiced in ancient kingdoms of Israel and Judah prior to the Babylonian Exile, at the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE. Many believe that Judaism in Biblical Israel was renovated and reformed to some extent in the 6th century BCE by Ezra and other priests returning to Israel from the exile. Samaritanism separated from [[Judaism]] in the next few centuries.

[[Christianity]] originated in Palestine, at the end of the 1st century, as a radically reformed branch of [[Judaism]]; it spread to ancient Greece and Rome, and from there to most of Europe, Asia, the Americas, and many other parts of the world. Over the centuries Christianity split into many separate churches and denominations. A major split in the 5th century separated various Oriental Churches from the [[Catholic]] church centered in Rome. Other major splits were the East-West Schism in the 11th century, which separated the Eastern Orthodox Churches, and the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, which eventually gave birth to hundreds of independent Protestant denominations.

[[Islam]] originated in the 6th century, in the Arabian cities of Makkah and Madinah. Although not a dissident branch of either [[Judaism]] or [[Christianity]], it explicitly claimed to be a continuation and replacement for them, and echoed many of their principles. According to Muslim belief, Islam was the final word of God and its message was that of all the prophets, and thus Islam had been around since the beginning. As an example of the similarities between the faiths, Muslims believe in a version of the story of Genesis and in the lineal descent of the Arabs from Abraham through Ishmael. Ishmael was conceived through Abraham's second wife Hagar.

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abrahamic_religion Abrahamic religion]''. Retrieved on July 15. 2005.

[[Category:Religions]]

Quietism

2005-07-21T19:55:24Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Quietism''' is a term with multiple meanings and definitions.

*'''Quietism''' is a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[philosophy]] that swept through France, Italy and Spain during the 17th century [[Era vulgaris|e.v.]], but it had much earlier origins. The mystics known as ''Quietists'' insist with more or less emphasis on intellectual stillness and interior passivity as essential conditions of perfection; and all have been officially proscribed as [[heresy]] in very explicit terms by the [[Roman Catholic Church]].

*'''Quietism''' is the term used to describe one of the phases which British [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] went through, after their enthusiastic beginnings and as a result of the persecution on the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 e.v. and before the 19th century e.v. phase of evangelicalism.

*'''Quietism''' is a principal trend in Iraqi [[Shi'a|Shiism]], which seeks to keep politics out of religion. This contrasts sharply with the Iranian Shia government, which, after taking power in 1979 e.v., marginalized and persecuted Iranian quietists school in that country. Sh'ia traditions of non-involvement in politics create anomalies in modern Muslim culture: Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Iraq identifies himself as a follower of the quietist school of thought, despite his indirect but decisive role in most major Iraqi political decisions. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/24/international/middleeast/24shiites.html] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39853-2005Jan26_3.html]

*'''Quietism''' can be used in a general sense to mean peace or tranquillity of mind; calmness; indifference; apathy; dispassion; indisturbance; inaction.
 

==Christian philosophy==

===Origins of Christian philosophy===
The state of impeturbable serenity or ''[[ataraxia]]'' was seen as a desirable state of mind by [[Epicurus]] and the [[Stoic]] philosophers alike, and by their [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] followers, such as the emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]]. Quietism has been compared to the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] doctrine of [[Nirvana]]. The possibility of achieving a sinless state and union with the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]] are denied by the Roman Catholic Church.

Among the "errors" condemned by the [[Council of Vienne]] (1311-1312 e.v.) are the propositions: that man in the present life can attain such a degree of [[perfection]] as to become utterly [[sin|sinless]]; that the "perfect" have no need to [[fasting|fast]] or [[prayer|pray]], but may freely grant the body whatsoever it craves (a tacit reference to the [[Cathar]]s or [[Albigensian Crusade|Albigenses]] of southern France and Catalonia); that they are not subject to any human authority or bound by the precepts of the Church. Similar assertions of individual autonymy on the part of the [[Fraticelli]] led to their condemnation by Pope John XXI in 1317 e.v. The same pope in 1329 e.v. proscribed among the errors of [[Meister Eckhart]] the assertions that we are totally transformed into God just as in the sacrament the bread is changed into the body of Christ (see [[transubstantiation]]) and the value of internal actions, which are wrought by the Godhead abiding within us.

Quietism further developed in the [[mysticism]] of the great 16th century e.v. Spaniards, [[Teresa of Avila]] and [[John of the Cross]]. Its final orthodox Catholic defender was [[Molinos|Miguel de Molinos]], referred to by the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' as the "founder" of Quietism. The apostle of the Quietist movement in 17th-century France was Molinos' correspondent, the prolific writer Mme Guyon, who won an influential convert at the court of Louis XIV in Madame de Maintenon and an ally within the Catholic hierarchy in Francois Fénelon|Archbishop Fénelon.

Molinos and the doctrines of Quietism were finally condemned by Pope Innocent XI in the Bull ''Coelestis Pastor'' of 1687 e.v. A commission in France found most of Madame Guyon’s works intolerable, and the government confined her, first to a convent, then in the Bastille. After Fénelon’s spirited defense in a print war with Bossuet, in 1699 e.v. Pope Innocent XII prohibited the circulation of Fénelon’s ''Maxims of the Saints''. The [[inquisition]]'s proceedings against remaining Quietists in Italy lasted until the eighteenth century.

===Theology===
Quietism states that man's highest perfection consists of a psychical self-annihilation and a subsequent absorption of the soul into the [[Divine Essence]], even during the present life. In this way, the mind is withdrawn from worldly interests to passively and constantly contemplate God. Madame Guyon maintained that she could not sin, for sin was Self, and she had rid herself of Self.

Whatever its [[theology|theological]] implications, it is undeniable that the personal autonomy implied by Quietism had an undermining effect on church unity, conformity and discipline.

==See also==
*[[Christian mysticism]]
*[[Religious Society of Friends]]

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12608c.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia:'' Quietism] as a "false or exaggerated mysticism"
*[http://www.bartleby.com/65/qu/quietism.html ''Columbia Encyclopedia'' on quietism]
*[http://www.selfknowledge.com/78100.htm More information]
*[http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/q1/quietism.asp Encyclopedia.com on quietism]
*[http://91.1911encyclopedia.org/Q/QU/QUIETISM.htm ''Encyclopædia Britannica''1911: "Quietism"] Informative.

==Further reading==
*Dandelion, P., ''A Sociological Analysis of the Theology of Quakers: The Silent Revolution'' New York, Ontario & Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press, 1996.

==References==
*Wikipedia (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quietism Quietism]''. Retrieved July 20, 2005 e.v.

Quietism

2005-07-21T19:54:33Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Quietism''' is a term with multiple meanings and definitions.

*'''Quietism''' is a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[philosophy]] that swept through France, Italy and Spain during the 17th century [[ev|e.v.]], but it had much earlier origins. The mystics known as ''Quietists'' insist with more or less emphasis on [[intellectual]] stillness and interior passivity as essential conditions of perfection; and all have been officially proscribed as [[heresy]] in very explicit terms by the [[Roman Catholic Church]].

*'''Quietism''' is the term used to describe one of the phases which British [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] went through, after their enthusiastic beginnings and as a result of the persecution on the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 e.v. and before the 19th century e.v. phase of evangelicalism.

*'''Quietism''' is a principal trend in Iraqi [[Shi'a|Shiism]], which seeks to keep politics out of religion. This contrasts sharply with the Iranian Shia government, which, after taking power in 1979 e.v., marginalized and persecuted Iranian quietists school in that country. Sh'ia traditions of non-involvement in politics create anomalies in modern Muslim culture: Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Iraq identifies himself as a follower of the quietist school of thought, despite his indirect but decisive role in most major Iraqi political decisions. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/24/international/middleeast/24shiites.html] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39853-2005Jan26_3.html]

*'''Quietism''' can be used in a general sense to mean peace or tranquillity of mind; calmness; indifference; apathy; dispassion; indisturbance; inaction.
 

==Christian philosophy==

===Origins of Christian philosophy===
The state of impeturbable serenity or ''[[ataraxia]]'' was seen as a desirable state of mind by [[Epicurus]] and the [[Stoic]] philosophers alike, and by their [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] followers, such as the emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]]. Quietism has been compared to the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] doctrine of [[Nirvana]]. The possibility of achieving a sinless state and union with the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]] are denied by the Roman Catholic Church.

Among the "errors" condemned by the [[Council of Vienne]] (1311-1312 e.v.) are the propositions: that man in the present life can attain such a degree of [[perfection]] as to become utterly [[sin|sinless]]; that the "perfect" have no need to [[fasting|fast]] or [[prayer|pray]], but may freely grant the body whatsoever it craves (a tacit reference to the [[Cathar]]s or [[Albigensian Crusade|Albigenses]] of southern France and Catalonia); that they are not subject to any human authority or bound by the precepts of the Church. Similar assertions of individual autonymy on the part of the [[Fraticelli]] led to their condemnation by Pope John XXI in 1317 e.v. The same pope in 1329 e.v. proscribed among the errors of [[Meister Eckhart]] the assertions that we are totally transformed into God just as in the sacrament the bread is changed into the body of Christ (see [[transubstantiation]]) and the value of internal actions, which are wrought by the Godhead abiding within us.

Quietism further developed in the [[mysticism]] of the great 16th century e.v. Spaniards, [[Teresa of Avila]] and [[John of the Cross]]. Its final orthodox Catholic defender was [[Molinos|Miguel de Molinos]], referred to by the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' as the "founder" of Quietism. The apostle of the Quietist movement in 17th-century France was Molinos' correspondent, the prolific writer Mme Guyon, who won an influential convert at the court of Louis XIV in Madame de Maintenon and an ally within the Catholic hierarchy in Francois Fénelon|Archbishop Fénelon.

Molinos and the doctrines of Quietism were finally condemned by Pope Innocent XI in the Bull ''Coelestis Pastor'' of 1687 e.v. A commission in France found most of Madame Guyon’s works intolerable, and the government confined her, first to a convent, then in the Bastille. After Fénelon’s spirited defense in a print war with Bossuet, in 1699 e.v. Pope Innocent XII prohibited the circulation of Fénelon’s ''Maxims of the Saints''. The [[inquisition]]'s proceedings against remaining Quietists in Italy lasted until the eighteenth century.

===Theology===
Quietism states that man's highest perfection consists of a psychical self-annihilation and a subsequent absorption of the soul into the [[Divine Essence]], even during the present life. In this way, the mind is withdrawn from worldly interests to passively and constantly contemplate God. Madame Guyon maintained that she could not sin, for sin was Self, and she had rid herself of Self.

Whatever its [[theology|theological]] implications, it is undeniable that the personal autonomy implied by Quietism had an undermining effect on church unity, conformity and discipline.

==See also==
*[[Christian mysticism]]
*[[Religious Society of Friends]]

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12608c.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia:'' Quietism] as a "false or exaggerated mysticism"
*[http://www.bartleby.com/65/qu/quietism.html ''Columbia Encyclopedia'' on quietism]
*[http://www.selfknowledge.com/78100.htm More information]
*[http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/q1/quietism.asp Encyclopedia.com on quietism]
*[http://91.1911encyclopedia.org/Q/QU/QUIETISM.htm ''Encyclopædia Britannica''1911: "Quietism"] Informative.

==Further reading==
*Dandelion, P., ''A Sociological Analysis of the Theology of Quakers: The Silent Revolution'' New York, Ontario & Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press, 1996.

==References==
*Wikipedia (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quietism Quietism]''. Retrieved July 20, 2005 e.v.

Quietism

2005-07-21T19:53:59Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Quietism''' is a term with multiple meanings and definitions.

*'''Quietism''' is a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[philosophy]] that swept through France, Italy and Spain during the 17th century [[e.v.]], but it had much earlier origins. The mystics known as ''Quietists'' insist with more or less emphasis on [[intellectual]] stillness and interior passivity as essential conditions of perfection; and all have been officially proscribed as [[heresy]] in very explicit terms by the [[Roman Catholic Church]].

*'''Quietism''' is the term used to describe one of the phases which British [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] went through, after their enthusiastic beginnings and as a result of the persecution on the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 e.v. and before the 19th century e.v. phase of evangelicalism.

*'''Quietism''' is a principal trend in Iraqi [[Shi'a|Shiism]], which seeks to keep politics out of religion. This contrasts sharply with the Iranian Shia government, which, after taking power in 1979 e.v., marginalized and persecuted Iranian quietists school in that country. Sh'ia traditions of non-involvement in politics create anomalies in modern Muslim culture: Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Iraq identifies himself as a follower of the quietist school of thought, despite his indirect but decisive role in most major Iraqi political decisions. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/24/international/middleeast/24shiites.html] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39853-2005Jan26_3.html]

*'''Quietism''' can be used in a general sense to mean peace or tranquillity of mind; calmness; indifference; apathy; dispassion; indisturbance; inaction.
 

==Christian philosophy==

===Origins of Christian philosophy===
The state of impeturbable serenity or ''[[ataraxia]]'' was seen as a desirable state of mind by [[Epicurus]] and the [[Stoic]] philosophers alike, and by their [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] followers, such as the emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]]. Quietism has been compared to the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] doctrine of [[Nirvana]]. The possibility of achieving a sinless state and union with the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]] are denied by the Roman Catholic Church.

Among the "errors" condemned by the [[Council of Vienne]] (1311-1312 e.v.) are the propositions: that man in the present life can attain such a degree of [[perfection]] as to become utterly [[sin|sinless]]; that the "perfect" have no need to [[fasting|fast]] or [[prayer|pray]], but may freely grant the body whatsoever it craves (a tacit reference to the [[Cathar]]s or [[Albigensian Crusade|Albigenses]] of southern France and Catalonia); that they are not subject to any human authority or bound by the precepts of the Church. Similar assertions of individual autonymy on the part of the [[Fraticelli]] led to their condemnation by Pope John XXI in 1317 e.v. The same pope in 1329 e.v. proscribed among the errors of [[Meister Eckhart]] the assertions that we are totally transformed into God just as in the sacrament the bread is changed into the body of Christ (see [[transubstantiation]]) and the value of internal actions, which are wrought by the Godhead abiding within us.

Quietism further developed in the [[mysticism]] of the great 16th century e.v. Spaniards, [[Teresa of Avila]] and [[John of the Cross]]. Its final orthodox Catholic defender was [[Molinos|Miguel de Molinos]], referred to by the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' as the "founder" of Quietism. The apostle of the Quietist movement in 17th-century France was Molinos' correspondent, the prolific writer Mme Guyon, who won an influential convert at the court of Louis XIV in Madame de Maintenon and an ally within the Catholic hierarchy in Francois Fénelon|Archbishop Fénelon.

Molinos and the doctrines of Quietism were finally condemned by Pope Innocent XI in the Bull ''Coelestis Pastor'' of 1687 e.v. A commission in France found most of Madame Guyon’s works intolerable, and the government confined her, first to a convent, then in the Bastille. After Fénelon’s spirited defense in a print war with Bossuet, in 1699 e.v. Pope Innocent XII prohibited the circulation of Fénelon’s ''Maxims of the Saints''. The [[inquisition]]'s proceedings against remaining Quietists in Italy lasted until the eighteenth century.

===Theology===
Quietism states that man's highest perfection consists of a psychical self-annihilation and a subsequent absorption of the soul into the [[Divine Essence]], even during the present life. In this way, the mind is withdrawn from worldly interests to passively and constantly contemplate God. Madame Guyon maintained that she could not sin, for sin was Self, and she had rid herself of Self.

Whatever its [[theology|theological]] implications, it is undeniable that the personal autonomy implied by Quietism had an undermining effect on church unity, conformity and discipline.

==See also==
*[[Christian mysticism]]
*[[Religious Society of Friends]]

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12608c.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia:'' Quietism] as a "false or exaggerated mysticism"
*[http://www.bartleby.com/65/qu/quietism.html ''Columbia Encyclopedia'' on quietism]
*[http://www.selfknowledge.com/78100.htm More information]
*[http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/q1/quietism.asp Encyclopedia.com on quietism]
*[http://91.1911encyclopedia.org/Q/QU/QUIETISM.htm ''Encyclopædia Britannica''1911: "Quietism"] Informative.

==Further reading==
*Dandelion, P., ''A Sociological Analysis of the Theology of Quakers: The Silent Revolution'' New York, Ontario & Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press, 1996.

==References==
*Wikipedia (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quietism Quietism]''. Retrieved July 20, 2005 e.v.

Quietism

2005-07-21T19:53:16Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Quietism''' is a term with multiple meanings and definitions.

*'''Quietism''' is a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[philosophy]] that swept through France, Italy and Spain during the 17th century [[e.v.]], but it had much earlier origins. The mystics known as ''Quietists'' insist with more or less emphasis on [[intellectual]] stillness and interior passivity as essential conditions of perfection; and all have been officially proscribed as [[heresy]] in very explicit terms by the [[Roman Catholic Church]].

*'''Quietism''' is the term used to describe one of the phases which British [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] went through, after their enthusiastic beginnings and as a result of the persecution on the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 e.v. and before the 19th century e.v. phase of evangelicalism.

*'''Quietism''' is a principal trend in Iraqi [[Shiism]], which seeks to keep politics out of religion. This contrasts sharply with the Iranian Shia government, which, after taking power in 1979 e.v., marginalized and persecuted Iranian quietists school in that country. Sh'ia traditions of non-involvement in politics create anomalies in modern Muslim culture: Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Iraq identifies himself as a follower of the quietist school of thought, despite his indirect but decisive role in most major Iraqi political decisions. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/24/international/middleeast/24shiites.html] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39853-2005Jan26_3.html]

*'''Quietism''' can be used in a general sense to mean peace or tranquillity of mind; calmness; indifference; apathy; dispassion; indisturbance; inaction.
 

==Christian philosophy==

===Origins of Christian philosophy===
The state of impeturbable serenity or ''[[ataraxia]]'' was seen as a desirable state of mind by [[Epicurus]] and the [[Stoic]] philosophers alike, and by their [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] followers, such as the emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]]. Quietism has been compared to the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] doctrine of [[Nirvana]]. The possibility of achieving a sinless state and union with the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]] are denied by the Roman Catholic Church.

Among the "errors" condemned by the [[Council of Vienne]] (1311-1312 e.v.) are the propositions: that man in the present life can attain such a degree of [[perfection]] as to become utterly [[sin|sinless]]; that the "perfect" have no need to [[fasting|fast]] or [[prayer|pray]], but may freely grant the body whatsoever it craves (a tacit reference to the [[Cathar]]s or [[Albigensian Crusade|Albigenses]] of southern France and Catalonia); that they are not subject to any human authority or bound by the precepts of the Church. Similar assertions of individual autonymy on the part of the [[Fraticelli]] led to their condemnation by Pope John XXI in 1317 e.v. The same pope in 1329 e.v. proscribed among the errors of [[Meister Eckhart]] the assertions that we are totally transformed into God just as in the sacrament the bread is changed into the body of Christ (see [[transubstantiation]]) and the value of internal actions, which are wrought by the Godhead abiding within us.

Quietism further developed in the [[mysticism]] of the great 16th century e.v. Spaniards, [[Teresa of Avila]] and [[John of the Cross]]. Its final orthodox Catholic defender was [[Molinos|Miguel de Molinos]], referred to by the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' as the "founder" of Quietism. The apostle of the Quietist movement in 17th-century France was Molinos' correspondent, the prolific writer Mme Guyon, who won an influential convert at the court of Louis XIV in Madame de Maintenon and an ally within the Catholic hierarchy in Francois Fénelon|Archbishop Fénelon.

Molinos and the doctrines of Quietism were finally condemned by Pope Innocent XI in the Bull ''Coelestis Pastor'' of 1687 e.v. A commission in France found most of Madame Guyon’s works intolerable, and the government confined her, first to a convent, then in the Bastille. After Fénelon’s spirited defense in a print war with Bossuet, in 1699 e.v. Pope Innocent XII prohibited the circulation of Fénelon’s ''Maxims of the Saints''. The [[inquisition]]'s proceedings against remaining Quietists in Italy lasted until the eighteenth century.

===Theology===
Quietism states that man's highest perfection consists of a psychical self-annihilation and a subsequent absorption of the soul into the [[Divine Essence]], even during the present life. In this way, the mind is withdrawn from worldly interests to passively and constantly contemplate God. Madame Guyon maintained that she could not sin, for sin was Self, and she had rid herself of Self.

Whatever its [[theology|theological]] implications, it is undeniable that the personal autonomy implied by Quietism had an undermining effect on church unity, conformity and discipline.

==See also==
*[[Christian mysticism]]
*[[Religious Society of Friends]]

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12608c.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia:'' Quietism] as a "false or exaggerated mysticism"
*[http://www.bartleby.com/65/qu/quietism.html ''Columbia Encyclopedia'' on quietism]
*[http://www.selfknowledge.com/78100.htm More information]
*[http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/q1/quietism.asp Encyclopedia.com on quietism]
*[http://91.1911encyclopedia.org/Q/QU/QUIETISM.htm ''Encyclopædia Britannica''1911: "Quietism"] Informative.

==Further reading==
*Dandelion, P., ''A Sociological Analysis of the Theology of Quakers: The Silent Revolution'' New York, Ontario & Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press, 1996.

==References==
*Wikipedia (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quietism Quietism]''. Retrieved July 20, 2005 e.v.

Prakrti

2005-07-19T10:59:43Z

Fr. Zabed:

{{stub}}

'''Prakrti''' or '''Prakriti''' (from [[Sanskrit|Sanskrit language]]) is, according to [[samkhya|samkhya philosophy]] the basic matter of which the universe consists. It is composed of the three [[guna]]s: [[tamas]], [[rajas]] and [[sattva]].

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prakrti Prakrti]''. Retrieved on July 19. 2005.

[[Category:Hinduism]]

Purusha

2005-07-19T10:56:57Z

Fr. Zabed:

{{stub}}

In [[Hinduism]], '''Purusha''' ("Cosmic] Man") is the "self" which pervades the universe. The [[Vedas|Vedic]] divinities are considered to be the human mind's interpretation of the many facets of Purusha. According to [[mythology]], Purusha was dismembered by the [[god]]s -- his mind is the [[moon]], his eyes are the [[sun]], and his breath is the wind.

In [[Samkhya]], a purusha is a sentient being's pure consciousness and true identity, to be contrasted with [[prakrti]], or the material world, which contains all their organs, senses, and intellectual faculties. The symbol below is [[aum]]. This is the first word uttered by God at creation.

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purusha Purusha]''. Retrieved on July 19. 2005.

[[Category:Hinduism]]

Purusha

2005-07-19T10:55:10Z

Fr. Zabed:

{{stub}}

In [[Hinduism]], '''Purusha''' ("Cosmic] Man") is the "self" which pervades the [[universe]]. The [[Vedas|Vedic]] divinities are considered to be the human mind's interpretation of the many facets of Purusha. According to [[mythology]], Purusha was dismembered by the [[god]]s -- his mind is the [[moon]], his eyes are the [[sun]], and his breath is the wind.

In [[Samkhya]], a purusha is a sentient being's pure consciousness and true identity, to be contrasted with [[prakrti]], or the material world, which contains all their organs, senses, and intellectual faculties. The symbol below is [[aum]]. This is the first word uttered by God at creation.

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purusha Purusha]''. Retrieved on July 19. 2005.

[[Category:Hinduism]]

Samkhya

2005-07-19T10:50:36Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Samkhya''', also '''Sankhya''', (Sanskrit: '''सांख्य''') is a school of Indian philosophy, and is one of the six ''astika'' or Hindu philosophical schools of [[India]]. It is regarded as the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in [[Hinduism]]. Its philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two eternal realities: [[purusha]] and [[prakrti]]; it is therefore a strongly ''dualist'' and ''enumerationist'' philosophy, characterized by a worldview that sees the universe as an evolving mixture of distinct dualities (light/dark, male/female, etc). Historically, the Sankhya school has been closely associated with the Hindu [[Yoga]] school of philosophy. The sage Kapila is traditionally considered to be the founder of the Sankhya school, although no historical verification is possible. The definitive text of classical Sankhya is the ''Sankhya Karika'', written by ''Ishvara Krishna'', circa 200 CE.

== The metaphysics of Samkhya ==

Metaphysically, Samkhya maintains a radical duality between spirit/consciousness (''Purusha'') and matter (''Prakrti''). All physical events are considered to be manifestations of the evolution of ''Prakrti'', or primal nature (from which all physical bodies are derived). Each sentient being is a ''Purusha'', and is limitless and unrestricted to its body. ''Bondage'' arises when the ''Purusha'' is misled as to its own identity and confuses itself with the physical body. The spirit is liberated with the realization that it is distinct from and not restricted to physical matter.

The evolution of primal nature is also considered to be purposeful - Prakrti evolves ''for'' the spirit in bondage. The spirit itself is only a witness to the evolution. The evolution obeys cause-and-effect relationships, with primal nature itself being the material cause of all physical creation. The cause and effect theory of Sankhya is called ''Satkaarya-vaada'', and holds that nothing can really be created from or destroyed into nothingness - all evolution is simply the transformation of primal nature from one form to another.

All matter has three fundamental ''guna''s or attributes - ''Rajas'' (creative attribute), ''Satva'' (preservationist attribute) and ''tamas'' (destructive attribute). The evolution of matter occurs when the relative strengths of the attributes changes. The evolution ceases when the spirit realises that it is distinct from primal nature and thus cannot evolve. This destroys the purpose of evolution, thus stopping Prakrti from evolving for Purusha.

The purushas (souls) are many, conscious and devoid of all qualities. They are the silent spectators of prakrti (matter or nature), which is composed of three gunas (dispositions): satva, rajas and tamas (steadiness, activity and dullness). When the equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed, the world order evolves. This disturbance is due to the proximity of Purusha and prakrti. Liberation (kaivalya), then, consists of the realisation of the difference between the two.

This was a dualistic philosophy. But there are differences between the Samkhya and Western forms of dualism. In the West, the fundamental distinction is between mind and body. In Samkhya, however, it is between the self (purusha) and matter, and the latter incorporates what Westerners would normally refer to as "mind". This means that the Self as the Samkhya understands it is more transcendent than "mind".

Samkhyan cosmology describes how life emerges in the universe; the relationship between Purusha and Prakriti is crucial to Patanjali's yoga system. The evolution of forms at the basis of Samkhya is quite unique. It is the influence of Samkhya that evolution has been discussed in ancient Hindu scriptures, including the [[Mahabharata]] and the Yoga Vasishtha.

Sankhya also has a strong cognitive theory built into it; curiously, while consciousness/spirit is considered to be radically different from any physical entities, the mind (''manas''), ego (''ahamkara'') and intellect (''buddhi'') are all considered to be manifestations of Prakrti (physical entity).

There is no philosophical place for a creator God in the Sankhya philosophy; indeed, the concept of God was incorporated into the Sankhya viewpoint only after it became associated with the theistic [[Yoga]] system of philosophy.

== Also see ==

* [[Hinduism]]
* [[Yoga]]
* [[Hindu philosophy]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.philo.demon.co.uk/enumerat.htm Sankhya philosophy]
* [http://www.cse.iitd.ac.in/~csu01118/6Coffee.pdf How to drink Coffee - Sankhya view] - an introduction to the Sankhya theory of cognition, illustrated in the process of drinking coffee.
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0303001 Comparison between Indian and Greek cosmology]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samkhya Samkhya]''. Retrieved on July 17. 2005.

[[Category:Hinduism]]

Patanjali

2005-07-19T10:46:15Z

Fr. Zabed:

Patañjali (Devanāgarī पतञ्जलि) is the compiler of the ''Yoga Sutra'', a major work containing aphorisms on the practical and philosophical wisdom regarding practice of [[Raja yoga]]. ("Yoga" in traditional [[Hinduism]] involves inner contemplation, a rigorous system [[meditation]] practice, ethics, metaphysics, and devotion to the one common soul, God, or [[Brahman]]/[[Atman]].)

Virtually nothing is known about the life of Patañjali, and some scholars believe he is entirely [[myth]]ical. Various references suggest he lived between 200 BC and 400 AD. Ancient texts often refer to Patañjali as an incarnation of the serpent [[god]] [[Ananta]], and he is sometimes depicted as half human and half serpent.

Patañjali is the reputed author of the ''Yoga Sutra'', as well as commentary on Pāṇini's Sanskrit grammar (''Aṣṭādhyāyī'') which is called 'Mahābhāṣya'. There are also many ayurvedic texts attributed to him. Nearly all scholars believe these texts were actually written by different people in different eras.

The ''Yoga Sutra'' probably dates around AD 200. Patañjali has often been called the founder of Yoga because of this work, although in reality is more a major figure. The ''Yoga Sutra'' is a treatise on [[Raja Yoga]], built on [[Samkhya]] and the Hindu scripture of the Bhagavad Gita. Yoga is also found in the [[Purana]]s, [[Vedas]] and [[Upanishad]]s. Still, this work is certainly a major work among the great Hindu scriptures and certainly is the basis of Raja Yoga. Patañjali's [[Yoga]] is part of the six schools of [[Hindu philosophy]]. They give us the earliest reference to the popular term Ashtanga Yoga which translates literally as the eight limbs of yoga. They are [[yama]], [[niyama]], [[asana]], [[pranayama]], [[pratyahara]], [[dharana]], [[dhyana]] and [[samadhi]].

==External links==
* [http://hrih.net/patanjali/ Internet archive of the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali], featuring different interpretations (50+) translated into 22 different languages
* [http://www.bindu.freeserve.co.uk/yoga/yogasutra/ys1.htm English translation of the Yoga Sutras by T.K.V.Desikachar], with links to 6 additional English translations and word-by-word definitions of included source text
* [http://www.bindu.freeserve.co.uk/yoga/yogasutra/ys1.htm Another English translation of the Yoga Sutras]
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/med_foundations_of_yoga.asp Exposition of Patañjali's Yama and Niyama]
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/essays_yoga_sutras_1.asp Essays on the Yoga Sutras] by Raghavan Iyer, plus much more

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patanjali Patañjali]''. Retrieved on July 19. 2005.

[[Category:Yogis]][[Category:Hinduism]]

Patanjali

2005-07-19T10:44:43Z

Fr. Zabed:

Patañjali (Devanāgarī पतञ्जलि) is the compiler of the ''Yoga Sutra'', a major work containing aphorisms on the practical and philosophical wisdom regarding practice of [[Raja yoga]]. ("Yoga" in traditional [[Hinduism]] involves inner contemplation, a rigorous system [[meditation]] practice, ethics, metaphysics, and devotion to the one common soul, God, or [[Brahman]]/[[Atman]].)

[[image:Patajali.jpg|right|A statue of Patañjali]]
Virtually nothing is known about the life of Patañjali, and some scholars believe he is entirely [[myth]]ical. Various references suggest he lived between [[200 BC]] and [[400]] AD. Ancient texts often refer to Patañjali as an incarnation of the serpent [[god]] [[Ananta]], and he is sometimes depicted as half human and half serpent.

Patañjali is the reputed author of the ''Yoga Sutra'', as well as commentary on [[Panini|Pāṇini]]'s [[Sanskrit]] grammar (''[[Astadhyayi|Aṣṭādhyāyī]]'') which is called 'Mahābhāṣya'. There are also many ayurvedic texts attributed to him. Nearly all scholars believe these texts were actually written by different people in different eras.

The ''Yoga Sutra'' probably dates around AD 200. Patañjali has often been called the founder of Yoga because of this work, although in reality is more a major figure. The ''Yoga Sutra'' is a treatise on [[Raja Yoga]], built on [[Samkhya]] and the Hindu scripture of the Bhagavad Gita. Yoga is also found in the [[Purana]]s, [[Vedas]] and [[Upanishad]]s. Still, this work is certainly a major work among the great Hindu scriptures and certainly is the basis of Raja Yoga. Patañjali's [[Yoga]] is part of the six schools of [[Hindu Philosophy]]. They give us the earliest reference to the popular term Ashtanga Yoga which translates literally as the eight limbs of yoga. They are [[yama]], [[niyama]], [[asana]], [[pranayama]], [[pratyahara]], [[dharana]], [[dhyana]] and [[samadhi]].

==External links==
* [http://hrih.net/patanjali/ Internet archive of the Yoga Sutras of Patañjali], featuring different interpretations (50+) translated into 22 different languages
* [http://www.bindu.freeserve.co.uk/yoga/yogasutra/ys1.htm English translation of the Yoga Sutras by T.K.V.Desikachar], with links to 6 additional English translations and word-by-word definitions of included source text
* [http://www.bindu.freeserve.co.uk/yoga/yogasutra/ys1.htm Another English translation of the Yoga Sutras]
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/med_foundations_of_yoga.asp Exposition of Patañjali's Yama and Niyama]
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/essays_yoga_sutras_1.asp Essays on the Yoga Sutras] by Raghavan Iyer, plus much more

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patanjali Patañjali]''. Retrieved on July 19. 2005.

[[Category:Yogis]][[Category:Hinduism]]

Yoga

2005-07-19T10:42:14Z

Fr. Zabed:

{{MTP}}

{{thelema}}

'''Yoga''', meaning ''union'' or ''yoking'' in Sanskrit, is the primary focus of Hinduism's diverse religious activities. YOGA is a science of the body, the mind, the consciousness and the soul. Yoga is a teaching of wisdom and knowledge which has been transmitted to mankind from the great Yogis and Rishis of ancient times, though its geographical origin lies in India, it is universal, all-valid, eternal knowledge.

There are several forms and paths of yoga that include meditation (Raja Yoga), devotional prayer (Bhakti Yoga), selfless service to others (Karma Yoga), practices for discrimination of truth and reality (Jnana Yoga), and even meditational forms of exercise and bodily upkeep (Hatha Yoga, a part of Raja Yoga). Yoga, as condified by [[Patanjali]], is also one of the six major schools of Hindu philosophy and as such specifically refers to Raja Yoga, the ''royal'' path of divine meditation on the one Brahman.

Yoga is indicative of a broad range of practices that aim to, through physical, mental and spiritual activities, focus the individual on the true essence of reality, to achieve moksha or samadhi, liberation and enlightenment. A man who has taken up successful practice of Yoga is called a Yogi (also spelled Yogin), a woman Yogini.

==Bhagavad Gita==
The Bhagavad Gita is the archetype of Yoga scripture. Capturing the essence and at the same time going into detail about the various Yogas and their philosophies, it was the groundstone to Yogic thought, and constantly refers to itself as such, the "Scripture of Yoga" (see the final verses of each chapter).

It is spoken in the format of Lord Krishna, self-identified as a manifestation of Brahman (the impersonal, supreme force of the cosmos, the Divine Ground), to Arjuna, a warrior and friend who is loathe to go to battle that would involve his killing his own gurus (teachers) and family members. The book is contained within the Mahabharata, and is thought to have been written some time between the 5th and the 2nd century BC.

Krishna summarizes the Yogas through eighteen chapters. Yoga can fundamentally be said to comprise four main streams: Raja Yoga (psycho-physical meditation), Bhakti Yoga (devotion and love), Karma Yoga (selfless action), and Jnana (pronounced ''gyaan'' in the Northern states and ''jnyaana'' in the South of India) Yoga (self-transcending knowledge). Other forms that exist today sprang up long after the Bhagavad Gita and Yoga Sutras (to be discussed below) and are all essentially forms of Raja Yoga.

While each path differs, their fundamental goal is one and the same: to realize Brahman (the Divine Ground), as being the only truth, that the body is temporal, but the soul (Atman) is infinite and one with Brahman. Yoga's aim (nirvana, Moksha) is essentially to escape from the cycle of reincarnation through realization of oneness with the ultimate reality.

Here are some quotations from Lord Krishna that make up history's first real yoga text and give comprehensive definitions of the '''four principal Yogas''':

==On all Yoga in general==
:"When the mind comes to rest, restrained by the practice of yoga, and when beholding the Self, by the self, he is content in the Self." (B.G., Chapter 6, Verse 20) " He who finds his happiness within, his delight within, and his light within, this yogi attains the bliss of Brahman, becoming Brahman."

===On Raja Yoga===
:" Establishing a firm seat for himself in a clean place... having directed his mind to a single object, with his thought and the activity of the senses controlled, he should practice yoga for the purpose of self-realization. Holding the body, head and neck erect, motionless and steady, gazing at the tip of his own nose and not looking in any direction, with quieted mind, banishing fear, established in the brahmacharin vow of celibacy, controlling the mind, with thoughts fixed on Me, he should sit, concentrated, devoted to Me. Thus, continually disciplining himself, the yogin whose mind is subdued goes to nirvana, to supreme peace, to union with Me." (B.G., Chapter 6, Verses 11-15)

===On Bhakti Yoga===
:".... those who, renouncing all actions in Me, and regarding Me as the Supreme, worship me... of those whose thoughts have entered into Me, I am soon the deliverer from the ocean of death and transmigration, Arjuna. Keep your mind on Me alone, your intellect on Me. Thus you shall dwell in me hereafter." (B.G., Chapter 12, Verses 6-8) " And he who serves me with the yoga of unswerving devotion, transcending these qualities [binary opposites, like good and evil, pain and pleasure] is ready for absorption in Brahman." (B.G. Chapter 14, Verse 26)

===On Karma Yoga===
:" With the body, with the mind, with the intellect, even merely with the senses, the yogins perform action toward self-purification, having abandoned attachment. He who is disciplined in yoga, having abandoned the fruit of action, attains steady peace..." (B.G. Chapter 5, Verses 11-12)

===On Jnana Yoga===
:" When he perceives the various states of being as resting in the One, and from That alone spreading out, then he attains Brahman. / They who know, through the eye of knowledge, the distinction between the field and the knower of the field, as well as the liberation of beings from material nature, go to the Supreme." (B.G. Chapter 15, Verse 31 / Verse 35)

Raja Yoga is, in general, stilling of the mind and body through meditative techniques, geared at realizing one's true nature. Bhakti Yoga is simply love and devotion, epitomized today in such practices as worship of various Hindu deities, finding salvation in love of Christ, etc. Karma Yoga is essentially acting, or doing one's duties in life, without desire or expectation of reward, a sort of constant sacrifice of action to the Supreme. It includes, but is not limited to, dedication to one's chosen profession and its perfection to God and all sorts of community service, since they are inherently done without thought of personal gain. Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what is not, what is eternal and what is not eternal.

==Definition==
Cappeller's Sanskrit-English Dictionary defines '''Yoga''' as:
m. ''collection or concentration of the mind, meditation, contemplation'' ([http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/indologie/tamil/cap_search.html])

==Darshanas==
One of the six ''darshanas'' (schools) of Vedic/Hindu philosophy, and as such specifically refers to ''Raja Yoga'', the royal path of divine meditation on the one Brahman. A man who has taken up successful practice of Yoga is called a Yogi (also spelled Yogin), a woman Yogini. Several other forms of yoga exist within Hinduism including those of selfless action (''Karma Yoga''), selfless love (''Bhakti Yoga''), and discriminatory contemplation (''Jnana Yoga'').

Yogic philosophy is primarily Upanishadic with roots in Samkhya, and some scholars see some influence by Buddhism. It is a universal philosophy that enjoins the practitioner to pursue his or her own path to enlightenment, depending on personality and inclination. It is very much in line with its Vedic roots and the traditional pluralism of Hinduism. For this reason, it is easy for a "Christian", for example, to see Jesus the Christ as his or her own ishwar-devata. "Christ the Yogi" is not an uncommon concept in the world of Yoga today. Most religions, when viewed through their ethical and spiritual standpoints without the trappings of dogma, are easily reconcilable with Yoga philosophy in general because of its transcendental message.

== Tantra ==

While the Bhagavad Gita, Yoga Sutras and Hatha Yoga Pradipika are clearly founded on Upanishadic and Brahmanical thought, much of Yoga has been influenced by and expanded into Tantra. Tantra is more ritual based, having its roots in the first millennium CE, and incorporates much more of a deist base. Almost entirely founded on Shiva and Shakti worship, Tantra visualizes the ultimate Brahman as Param Shiva, manifested through Shiva (the passive, masculine force of Lord Shiva) and Shakti (the active, creative feminine force of his consort, variously known as Ma Kali, Durga, Shakti, Parvati and others). It focuses on the kundalini, a three and a half-coiled 'snake' of spiritual energy at the base of the spine that rises through the chakras until union between Shiva and Shakti (also known as samadhi) is achieved.

It views the body as means, rather than as obstruction, to understanding, and as such incorporates mantra (Sanskrit prayers, often to gods, that are repeated), yantra (complex symbols representing Shakti in her various forms through intricate geometric figures) and rituals that range from simple murti (statue representations of deities) or image worship to meditation on a corpse! While much tantra certainly, through its many texts (see kaularvatantra, mahanirvana tantra) and teachers (e.g. Abhinava Gupta, Ramakrishna [a saint who practiced Kali bhakti, Advaita Vedanta and tantra, etc.) seems odd and highly arcane at times, it is transparent as being completely yogic. Also, injunctions are made that most people are not suitable for Tantra, especially those of pashu-bhava (animal disposition). This implies that anyone who has not observed celibacy, honesty, respect of elders, bodily cleansing, ritual cleansing through prayer, and various other processes for up to twelve years at a time, and still retains base desires, greed, sexual motivations, etc. one is not fit to practice Tantra. For this reason, even more stringently than other Yogas, Tantra, both Hindu and Buddhist, remains a strictly Guru-initiated system that as yet finds few true adepts outside of India.

==The Yoga Sutra and its followers==

While meditative practices like asanas (postures) and pranayama (breath control) existed long before Patanjali, his brilliant eight-limbed system was what became the standard for almost all yoga schools that followed. Raja Yoga, being difficult to achieve (one must be focused on the Supreme), several Guru (teacher) lines came to make firm methodologies of realizing it.

:A side note on the Guru: Emphasized by all schools of yoga as indispensable, the Guru takes on quasi-divine proportions. Acknowledged as a siddha (adept) who has attained the eight siddhis (powers) afforded by yoga (they range from transportation of the mind to anywhere into the universe to the only truly desirable power, samadhi), the Guru guides the shisya (student) through yogic discipline from the beginning. When doing yoga, the student is urged to look long and hard for a sadguru (True Teacher) and then devote himself from imbibing that Guru's learning.

The most famous of the traditional Hindu schools of yoga, and the basis for nearly all modern systems, is Hatha Yoga. It is representative of all non-Bhakti-Karma-Jnana Yoga that has become so popular in the west today.

==Teachers==
Beginning with the arrival of Swami Vivekananda in 1893, there has been a steady flow of learned teachers that have brought the transcendental message of Yoga to the West. While the influence of these Yogins is deeply inscribed into the surface of the modern yogic ethos, both in India and America, a proliferation of 'yoga clinics' and non-spiritual yoga systems has been seen in the West, especially in the United States. While many Americans view it as an exercise system that simply enhances one's health, a much greater number in India (and a minority in America) still see it as it has been for over 5,000 years, whether in the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the writings of the Dalai Lama, or the "Yoga Boom" of the twentieth century, a system of spirituality universal in its application.

=== The Great Modern Yogins ===

First brought into America as early as the 1890s by the great yogin and disciple of Shri Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda, the Hindu representative in the Chicago Parliament of World Religions, Yoga has also been transported in the arms of many other great yogins and formed into stratified schools seeking to propagate Yoga in its great spiritual context. But these teachers have made their imprint in both India and America, and continue to serve as modern embodiments of Yoga.

Swami Rama Tirtha, who came from a deep yoga tradition in the Himalayas of India, was the founding spiritual head of the Himalayan Institute. He was the first yogin to come to America and be subjected to the scrutiny of modern science. Among other things, he stunned doctors by stopping the beat of his heart completely for several minutes.

Many modern schools of Hatha Yoga derive from the school of Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, who taught in Mysore, India from 1931 until his death in 1993. Among his students prominent in popularizing Yoga in the West were Sri K. Pattabhi Jois, B.K.S. Iyengar, Indra Devi and Krishnamacharya's son T.K.V. Desikachar. Desikachar founded the Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandiram in Madras (now Chennai), with the aim of
making available the heritage of yoga as taught by Krishnamacharya.

Other great yogins are Paramahansa Yogananda, practitioner of Kriya Yoga who arrived in America as a powerful example of the universality of Yoga. Sporting a cross, he came to the U.S. with the Hindu Bhagavad Gita in one hand and the Christian New Testament in the other, speaking to his disciples in pluralist ideology with Yoga as the binding force.

Sri Aurobindo, referred to as Aurobindo Ghosh by those who consider him as merely a philosopher rather than an Avatar, was not simply an intellectual genius born in West Bengal and educated in the best university in England. His masterful translations and interpretations of Hindu and Yogic scriptures are mystic and esoteric, and often are the opposite of what you will find in Max Muller's and other purely intellectual translations of the sacred Sanskrit texts, among which his translations/commentaries on the Hindu texts of the Upanishads and Gita are mystic in nature, and his epic Hindu/Yoga poem Savitri is a treasure of Hindu Yogic literature, formally being the longest poem ever written in English. Beyond this, his personal life is a fascinating testimony of the life of a true yogin. After the goddess Sri entered his being, he became Sri Aurobindo. Besides his influence and scholarly writing on Yoga, he also founded Sri Aurobindo Ashram in Pondicherry, that continues to propagate the practice of Integral Yoga, which is a Tantric synthesis of the four main Yogas (Karma, Jnana, Bhakti and Raja).

Gopi Krishna was a Kashmiri office worker and spiritual seeker who was born in 1903, and wrote autobiographical accounts of his spiritual experiences with Yoga. His most famous one is "Kundalini": Path to Higher Consciousness." Gopi Krishna's graphic accounts of his experiences stand out as among the clearest journals documenting a spiritual transformation. They are highly recommended as reading for anyone interested in Yogic phenomena.

Swami Sivananda (born in Pattamadai, Tamil Nadu, India in 1887), one of the greatest yoga masters of 20th century has authored over 200 highly inspiring books on yoga. Sivananda has also established Sivananda ashram of Rishikesh, India and is the founder of Divine Life Society. His disciple, Swami Satyananda (born in Almorah, Uttar Pradesh, India in 1923), has established International Yoga Fellowship movement, Bihar School of Yoga and Bihar Yoga Bharati, world's first university on yoga. The university is now headed by his disciple, Swami Niranjananda.

Mahamandaleshwar Paramhans Swami Maheshwarananda (Swamiji) comes from Rajasthan, India, and has been living in Vienna, Austria since 1972. Swamiji is the author of the scientific master-system Yoga in Daily Life and founder of the International Sri Deep Madhavananda Ashram Fellowship and ''Yoga in Daily Life'' ashrams and centres worldwide. He dedicated his whole life to help humanity through yoga and to evoke the ancient spiritual heritage of Sat Sanatana Dharma (the True Eternal Faith, ''sanatana dharma'' being another name for Hinduism).

Some modern styles of Yoga popular in America, Australia, Europe, India:

*Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga - the style taught by Sri K. Pattabhi Jois.
*Iyengar Yoga - pioneered by B.K.S. Iyengar
*Viniyoga
*Kriya Yoga - yoga of internal movement
*Nada Yoga - yoga of sound
*Indra Devi
*Paramahansa Yogananda
*Yoga Nidra - yoga of divine sleep (a la Vishnu)
*Sahaja Yoga
*Yoga in Daily Life - The system

==History of Yoga==

===Pre-Vedic (ca. 6000 - 3000 BCE [?])===
The history of yoga may go back anywhere from five to eight thousand years ago, depending on the perspective of the historian. It evolved wholly in the land of India, and while it is supposed by some scholars that yogic practices were originally the domain of the indigenous, non-Aryan (and pre-Vedic) peoples, it was first clearly expounded in the great Vedic shastras (religious texts).

Pre-Vedic findings are taken, by some commentators, to show that "yoga" existed in some form well before the establishment of Aryan culture in the north Indian subcontinent.
:A triangular amulet seal uncovered at the Mohenjo-daro archeological excavation site depicts a male, seated on a low platform in a cross legged position, with arms outstretched. His head is crowned with the horns of a water-buffalo. He is surrounded by animals (a fish, an alligator, and a snake) and diverse symbols. The likeness on the seal and understandings of the surrounding culture have led to its widely accepted identification as "''Pashupati''", Lord of the Beasts, a prototype and predecessor of the modern day Hindu god Shiva. The pose is a very familiar one to yogins, representing Shiva much as he is seen today, the meditating ascetic contemplating divine truth in "yoga-posture."
:(Ref. [http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/middle_east/mohenjo_daro.html 1], [http://www.harappa.com/script/parpola8.html#6 2])

===Vedic (ca. 2000-1500 BCE)===
David Frawley, a Vedic scholar, writes: "Yoga can be traced back to the Rig Veda itself, the oldest Hindu text which speaks about yoking our mind and insight to the Sun of Truth. Great teachers of early Yoga include the names of many famous Vedic sages like Vasishta, Yajnavalkya, and Jaigishavya."

Ideas of uniting mind, body and soul in the cosmic one, however, do not find real yogic explication until the most important mystic texts of Hinduism, the Upanishads or Vedanta, commentaries on the Vedas.

===Upanishadic (ca. 800-100 BCE)===
Explicit examples of the concept and terminology of yoga appear in the Upanishads (primarily thirteen principal texts of the Vedanta, or the "End of the Vedas," that are the culmination of all Vedic philosophy)

While protracted discussions of the ultimate, infinite Self, or Atman, and realization of Brahman, are the true legacy of the Upanishads, the first principal Yoga text was the Bhagavad Gita ("The Lord's Song"), also known as Gitopanishad.

In the Maitrayaniya Upanishad (200-300 BCE) yoga surfaces as:
:"Shadanga-Yoga - The uniting discipline of the six limbs (shad-anga), as expounded in the Maitrayaniya-Upanishad: (1) breath control (pranayama), (2) sensory inhibition (pratyahara), (3) meditation (dhyana), (4) concentration (dharana), (5) examination (tarka), and (6) ecstasy (samadhi)."
:Reference: http://www.orientalia.org/term3923.html

In the Katha Upanishad yoga surfaces as:
:"When the five instruments of knowledge stand still, together with the mind and when the intellect does not move, that is called the Supreme State. - III.10
:This, the firm Control of the senses, is what is called yoga. One must then be vigilant; for yoga can be both beneficial and injurious. - III.11"
:"Having received this wisdom taught by the King of Death and the entire process of yoga, Nachiketa became free from impurities and death and attained Brahman. Thus it will be also with any other who knows, in this manner, the inmost Self. - III.18"

====Commentary====
''"In the Kathopanishad there is a hint given to us as to how we can practice Yoga. There are one or two verses in the Kathopanishad which give the sum and substance of the practice of Yoga, which is also the same Yoga explained in greater detail in the system of Patanjali. The Kathopanishad says, in these verses, that the subtle essences of objects are superior to the sensory powers, they are higher in their degree and in quality. Higher than these essences of objects is the mind; higher than the mind is the intellect; higher than the intellect is the cosmic intellect called Mahat. It is also called Hiranyagarbha. Higher than that is the peaceful undifferentiated causal state called Avyakta. Higher than that is supreme Absolute, Purusha. The same Upanishad mentions the system of practice in another verse. The senses have to be rooted in the mind. The mind has to be centered in the intellect. The intellect has to be fixed in the Cosmic Intellect, and the Cosmic Intellect has to be united with the Peaceful Being. Sometimes this Peaceful Being, Shanta-Atman, is identified with the Isvara of the Vedanta. This is how we have to control the mind." ''
:Reference The Essence of The Aitareya and Taittiriya Upanishads by Swami Krishnananda The Divine Life Society Sivananda Ashram, Rishikesh, India [http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/aitt_0.html]
:See also: [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad Wikisources - Aitareya Upanishad], [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad Wikisource - Taittiriya Upanishad]

===Classical (ca. 200 CE)===

====Patanjali's Yoga Sutras====

After the Bhagavad Gita, the next seminal work on Yoga is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. The Yoga Sutras are a compilation of Yogic thought that is largely Raja Yogic in nature, it was codified some time between the 2nd century BC and the 3rd century by Patanjali, and prescribes adherence to "eight limbs" (the sum of which constitute "Ashtanga Yoga") to quiet one's mind and merge with the infinite. These eight limbs not only systematized conventional moral principles espoused by the Gita, but elucidated the practice of Raja Yoga in a more detailed manner. Indeed, his "eight-limbed" path has formed the foundation for Raja Yoga and much of Tantra Yoga (a Hindu deific, Shiva-Shakti yoga system) and Vajrayana Buddhism (Buddhist Tantra Yoga) that came after. It goes as follows:

*Yama (moral codes)
*Niyama (self-purification and study)
*Asana (posture)
*Pranayama (breath control)
*Pratyahara (sense control)
*Dharana (concentration)
*Dhyana (meditation)
*Samadhi (absorption)

Patanjali, whose own life is virtually unknown, had the impact of further spreading in compact form the essence of Raja Yoga. Some legends speak of his being Adinaga, the first snake, the lower half of his body being that of a snake, upon which the great Hindu God Vishnu reclines. Many say that he was the same Patanjali who wrote commentaries on Panini's singular masterwork on Sanskrit grammar. Others speak of the legends of his birth. A few even dispute his existence and attribute the Yoga Sutras to many authors, but this is highly unlikely due to the structural, linguistic and stylistic uniformity of the short work. His base is Hindu Samkhya philosophy and shows itself to have been highly influenced by the Upanishads.

His Yoga Sutras espouse a threefold system for attainment of samadhi through tapas (austerities; discipline; literally "heat"), swadhyaya (self-study) and ishwar-pranidhana (contemplation of God).

While Patanjali accepts the idea of what he terms "ishta-devata" (worship of deities as manifestations of the single Brahman), his overall "ishwar" is not a conventional God with personal form and speaks more to a universal, attributeless Brahman, an impersonal, unknowable, infinite force that is all and transcends all.

Together, the Bhagavad Gita and Yoga Sutras form the theoretical and philosophical base of all yoga. However, as far as Raja Yoga (meditation yoga) goes, it is most precisely captured by Patanjali's Yoga-Sutras.

====450 - 850 CE====
The '''Yoga-bhasya''', Veda Vyasa's commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali could have been written as early as 450 CE. Professor J. H. Woods, places the date of the Yoga-bhasya between 650 CE to 850 CE. Trevor Leggett places the date closer to 600 CE based on a commentary to the Yoga-bhasya published in Sanskrit in 1952 in the Madras Government Oriental Series #94 by Polakam Sri Rama Sastri and S. R. Krishnamurti Sastri. Evidence strongly suggests that this sub-commentary was written by Sankara who lived about 700 CE.

Vacaspati Mishra's '''Tattva Vaisharadi''', a commentary on the Yoga-bhasya was written in ca. 850 CE. An authoritative translation of this work can be found in "The Yoga System of Patanjali" by Professor James Haughton Woods.

:Reference: "Sankara on the Yoga Sutras" Trevor Leggett, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, ISBN: 81-208-1028-7
:Reference: "The Yoga System of Patanjali" James Haughton Woods, Harvard Oriental Series, 1914, (out of print) ISBN:81-208-0577-1 (reprint: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi)

====1350 - 1400 CE====

'''Hatha Yoga Pradipika'''
In the West, outside of Hindu culture, "yoga" is usually understood to refer to "hatha yoga." Hatha Yoga is, however, a particular system propagated by Swami Swatamarama, a yogic sage of the 15th century in India.

After the Bhagavad Gita and Yoga Sutras, the most fundamental text of Yoga is the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, written by Swami Swatamarama, that in great detail lists all the main asanas, pranayama, mudra and bandha that are familiar to today's yoga student. It runs in the line of Hindu yoga (to distinguish from Buddhist and Jain yoga) and is dedicated to Lord Adinath, a name for Lord Shiva (the Hindu god of destruction), who is alleged to have imparted the secret of Hatha Yoga to his divine consort Parvati. It is common for yogins and tantriks of several disciplines to dedicate their practices to a deity under the Hindu ishta-devata concept (see Patanjali's Yoga Sutras) while always striving to achieve beyond that: Brahman. Hindu philosophy in the Vedanta and Yoga streams, as the reader will remember, views only one thing as being ultimately real: Satchidananda Atman, the Existence-Consciousness-Blissful Self. Very Upanishadic in its notions, worship of Gods is a secondary means of focus on the higher being, a conduit to realization of the Divine Ground. Hatha Yoga follows in that vein and thus successfully transcends being particularly grounded in any one religion.

Hatha is a Sanskrit word meaning 'sun' (ha) and 'moon' (tha), representing opposing energies: hot and cold, male and female, positive and negative, similar but not completely analogous to yin and yang. Hatha yoga attempts to balance mind and body via physical exercises, or "asanas", controlled breathing, and the calming of the mind through relaxation and meditation. Asanas teach poise, balance & strength and were originally (and still) practiced to improve the body's physical health and clear the mind in preparation for meditation in the pursuit of enlightenment. "Asana" means "immovable", i.e. static, and often confused with the dynamic 108 natya karanas described in Natya Shastra and, along with the elements of Bhakti Yoga, is embodied in the contemporary form of Bharatanatyam.

By balancing two streams, often known as ida (mental) and pingala (bodily) currents, the sushumna nadi (current of the Self) is said to rise, opening various chakras (cosmic power points within the body, starting from the base of the spine and ending right above the head) until samadhi is attained. Ida and pingala are represented in the dynamism of natya yoga by lasya (female) and tandava (male) aspects, and bear direct reference to the Taoist dualism.

By forging a powerful depth of concentration and mastery of the body and mind, Hatha Yoga practices seek to still the mental waters and allow for apprehension of oneself as that which one always was, Brahman. Hatha Yoga is essentially a manual for scientifically taking one's body through stages of control to a point at which one-pointed focus on the unmanifested Brahman is possible: it is said to take its practicioner to the peaks of Raja Yoga.

In the West, hatha yoga has become wildly popular as a purely physical exercise regimen divorced of its original purpose, and thus, devoid of its original efficacy. Currently, it is estimated that about 30 million Americans practice hatha yoga. But in the Indian subcontinent the traditional practice is still to be found. The guru-shishya (teacher-student) relationship that exists without need for sanction from non-religious institutions, and which gave rise to all the great yogins who made way into international consciousness in the 20th century, has been maintained in Indian, Nepalese, and some Tibetan circles.

In India, whose Hindu population combines to a staggering 800 million, Yoga is a daily part of life. It is common to see people performing Surya Namaskar (a yogic set of asanas and pranayam dedicated to Surya, the Hindu God of the Sun) in the morning or speaking about food diets and body therapy entirely based on Yoga or the Hindu healing system of Ayurveda. The age-old tradition of Yoga has continued uninterrupted by the its popularity in the west (although more established schools like the Bihar School of Yoga work from within India to produce Yoga texts to send abroad).

In addition, hundreds and thousands sanyasins (renunciates) and sadhus (Hindu monks) wander in and out of city temples, village country sides and are to be found smattered all across the foothills of the Himalayas and the Vindhya Range of central India. For India's holy-men, Yoga is as fundamental as lifeblood. To see a man meditating at the steps of a temple, or even wondering contemplatively on the roadside, is not uncommon even to the more Westernized crowds. It is the same in Tibet, where the Buddhist establishment's lifestyle is permeated with the Yoga or yogic practices, which is ultimately not a once-a-day routine, but a constant immersion in self-discovery.
:See also: [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatha_Yoga_Pradipika Wikisource - Hatha Yoga Pradipika]

Western development of yoga has taken less of a spiritual approach and focused more on the mind/body connection. While Yoga is a religion to many, most practitioners in the west separate yoga from their spiritual beliefs, causing yoga to strictly stay within the containment of an exercise class or just within the "keeping healthy" aspect of life.

==Crowley on Yoga==

“Yoga means Union.”
- Aleister Crowley, Eight Lectures on Yoga.

While Liber O gives the essentials of magick practice, giving Golden Dawn techniques of working with the subtle levels of energy and magick light, in Liber E we find a series of basic techniques for training the mind and body in the practice of yogic disciplines. Taken together, these two manuals form the foundations of practice to establish the solid base of a pyramid of magick and yoga that will, with persistence, discipline and integrity, eventually lead one to the heights of attainment.

The basic outline of yogic practices given in Liber E are further elaborated upon in Crowley’s Book 4 Part I, as well as his smaller work Eight Lectures on Yoga. In discussing the teachings of the “Great Men” of the past, Crowley writes in Book 4:

“The methods advised by all these people have a startling resemblance to one another. They recommend "virtue" (of various kinds), solitude, absence of excitement, moderation in diet, and finally a practice which some call prayer and some call meditation. (The former four may turn out on examination to be merely conditions favourable to the last.)”

“It is by freeing the mind from external influences, whether casual or emotional, that it obtains power to see somewhat of the truth of things.”

Even more succinct, in Eight Lectures on Yoga, Crowley informs us of the “whole of the technique of Yoga”:

“Sit Still. Stop thinking. Shut up. Get out!”

The brilliance of Crowley’s adaptation of yoga is the disposal of countless unnecessary superstitions, cultural trappings, and misinformation to reveal the pristine glory of systematic set of physical and mental exercises which will aid the magician in concentration, control of force, and increased vitality and health.

The Yoga Sutras, written by the sage Patanjali, first outlined the path of ashtanga or “eight limbed yoga” as a set of guidelines on how to live one’s life, with attention to diet, self-discipline, and ethical and moral considerations.

The first limb is yama, a set of five ethical standards to be followed: ahimsa (non-violence), satya (speaking the truth), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (sexual continence), and aparigraha (non-attachment). Crowley redefined yama to reflect the changes in consciousness and responsibility which humanity has progressed to, by saying “Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law. That is Yama.”

The second limb is niyama, traditionally interpreted as five observances of self-discipline and witnessing of the sacred in one’s life. These are saucha (cleanliness); samtosa (contentment); tapas (spiritual austerities); svadhyaya (introspection); and Isvara pranidhana (surrender to God). In Eight Lectures on Yoga, Crowley interprets this limb generally as “virtue,” expanding them from five to seven virtues which correspond to seven sacred planets of the ancients. Saturn represents the virtue of discipline and endurance, as well as embracing the Trance of Sorrow; Jupiter the “vital, creative, genial element of the cosmos” as the selflessness of universal love, and the Trance of Joy; Mars stands for the virtue of energy, the ability to conquer the obstacles on the path, in particular the physical obstacles, as well as courage and passion; unto the Sun is ascribed the virtue of harmony, the “centralization of the faculties, their control, their motivation;” to Venus is given the “ecstatic acceptance of all possible experience and the transcendental assumption of all particular experience into the one experience;” Mercury represents the virtue of adaptability and indifference, the adroitness and flexibility that is requisite in both the mind and body of the yogin to master the path; while finally, the Moon is the purity of aspiration, as well as the many siddhis or magick powers which will arise. Crowley also adds two further planetary associations, for Uranus and Neptune. The niyama for Uranus is “the discovery of the True Will,” further stating that this niyama “is the most important of the tasks of the Yogi, because, until he has achieved it, he can have no idea who he is or where he is going.” For Neptune, he attributes spiritual intuition, the “imaginative faculty, the shadowing forth of the nature of the illimitable light,” as well as a strong dose of humour. Finally, for Pluto we are told that he is “the utmost sentinel of all; of him it is not wise to speak,” after which he explains that this is because “nothing at all is known about him.” Perhaps it is for some future yogin to discover the niyama of this distant chunk of ice!

The third and fourth limbs of ashtanga are asana, the various postures necessary for meditation, and pranayama, the control of breath. Whereas traditional yoga utilizes several sets of asanas for practice and mastery, Crowley recommended selecting one position and mastering it. “The real object of Asana is control of the muscular system, conscious and unconscious, so that no messages from the body can reach the mind.” Crowley points out the many health benefits of asana, including

“The conquest of Asana makes for endurance. If you keep in constant practice, you ought to find that about ten minutes in the posture will rest you as much as a good night's sleep.”

Crowley defined pranayama as “control of force,” again cutting through profuse amounts of mystic obfuscation in the traditional literature by describing the process thus:

“This simply means that you get a stop watch, and choose a cycle of breathing out and breathing in. Both operations should be made as complete as possible. The muscular system must be taxed to its utmost to assist the expansion and contraction of the lungs.”

He also describes the classic results of pranayama practice: perspiration, automatic rigidity, buchari-siddhi (“jumping about like a frog”), and levitation.

The fifth and sixth limbs are pratyahara, the withdrawal of senses, and dharana, concentration. The former is described in Eight Lectures as “introspection, but it also means a certain type of psychological experience,” citing the direct experience of feeling that you do not have a nose as an example. Going into much more detail in Book 4, he describes the process of simply watching the mind think. With dharana, we move into concentration proper. Here Liber E gives several practices for training the mind to concentrate one-pointedly, such as visualizing the elemental tattvas for a minute or more, and eventually working up to more complex images. Other practices given in Eight Lectures for concentration include Liber Astarte, Liber III vel Jugorum, and the practice “useful when walking in a christian city” of saying Apo Pantaos Kakodaimonos, with an “outward and downward sweep of the arm,” anytime one passes a person in “religious garb.”

Dyana and Samadhi, the seventh and eigth limbs of yoga, are traditionally associated with “meditation” proper, and ecstasy, respectively. One necessarily leads to the other, and samadhi is the crown of the system, the chrism of the yogin. In dyana is a development of the introspection of pratyahara and the concentration of dharana, resulting in the single minded force of dhyana. This process, taken to conclusion, results in the ecstasy of Samadhi. In The Soldier and the Hunchback (Liber 148), Crowley writes of this experience:

“Not what Christians call faith, be sure! But what (possibly) the forgers of the Epistles – those eminent mystics! – meant by faith. What I call Samadhi!”

“Ah, say the adepts, Samadhi is not the end, but the beginning. You must regard Samadhi as the normal state of mind which enables you to begin your researches, just as waking is the state from which you rise to Samadhi, sleep the state from which you rose to waking. And only from Sammasamadhi – continuous trance of the right kind – can you rise up as it were on tiptoe and peer through the clouds unto the mountains.”

==External links==
* [http://www.yrec.org/ Yoga Research and Education Center]
* [http://www.orientalia.org/dic1.html International Yoga Dictionary]
* [http://www.3ho.org 3ho.org: Kundalini Yoga]
* [http://www.sacredspaceyogasanctuary.com 'Sacred Space' Kundalini Meditation]
* [http://www.patanjali.ch patanjali.ch]
* [http://www.sahajayoga.org Sahaja Yoga]
* [http://bharatanatyam.medhahari.com/ Bhakti Yoga in Bharatanatyam]
* [http://www.archive.org/movies/movieslisting-browse.php?collection=opensource_movies&cat=bharatanatyam Collection of streaming videos illustrating Natya Yoga]
* [http://www.religiousbook.net/Books/Online_books/Pr/Practices_25.html Religiousbook.net article on Hatha Yoga]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2004). [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga Yoga]. Retrieved Sept. 22, 2004.

[[Category:Systems]]
[[Category:Hinduism]]

Yoga

2005-07-19T10:41:02Z

Fr. Zabed:

{{MTP}}

{{thelema}}

'''Yoga''', meaning ''union'' or ''yoking'' in Sanskrit, is the primary focus of Hinduism's diverse religious activities. YOGA is a science of the body, the mind, the consciousness and the soul. Yoga is a teaching of wisdom and knowledge which has been transmitted to mankind from the great Yogis and Rishis of ancient times, though its geographical origin lies in India, it is universal, all-valid, eternal knowledge.

There are several forms and paths of yoga that include meditation (Raja Yoga), devotional prayer (Bhakti Yoga), selfless service to others (Karma Yoga), practices for discrimination of truth and reality (Jnana Yoga), and even meditational forms of exercise and bodily upkeep (Hatha Yoga, a part of Raja Yoga). Yoga, as condified by Patanjali, is also one of the six major schools of Hindu philosophy and as such specifically refers to Raja Yoga, the ''royal'' path of divine meditation on the one Brahman.

Yoga is indicative of a broad range of practices that aim to, through physical, mental and spiritual activities, focus the individual on the true essence of reality, to achieve moksha or samadhi, liberation and enlightenment. A man who has taken up successful practice of Yoga is called a Yogi (also spelled Yogin), a woman Yogini.

==Bhagavad Gita==
The Bhagavad Gita is the archetype of Yoga scripture. Capturing the essence and at the same time going into detail about the various Yogas and their philosophies, it was the groundstone to Yogic thought, and constantly refers to itself as such, the "Scripture of Yoga" (see the final verses of each chapter).

It is spoken in the format of Lord Krishna, self-identified as a manifestation of Brahman (the impersonal, supreme force of the cosmos, the Divine Ground), to Arjuna, a warrior and friend who is loathe to go to battle that would involve his killing his own gurus (teachers) and family members. The book is contained within the Mahabharata, and is thought to have been written some time between the 5th and the 2nd century BC.

Krishna summarizes the Yogas through eighteen chapters. Yoga can fundamentally be said to comprise four main streams: Raja Yoga (psycho-physical meditation), Bhakti Yoga (devotion and love), Karma Yoga (selfless action), and Jnana (pronounced ''gyaan'' in the Northern states and ''jnyaana'' in the South of India) Yoga (self-transcending knowledge). Other forms that exist today sprang up long after the Bhagavad Gita and Yoga Sutras (to be discussed below) and are all essentially forms of Raja Yoga.

While each path differs, their fundamental goal is one and the same: to realize Brahman (the Divine Ground), as being the only truth, that the body is temporal, but the soul (Atman) is infinite and one with Brahman. Yoga's aim (nirvana, Moksha) is essentially to escape from the cycle of reincarnation through realization of oneness with the ultimate reality.

Here are some quotations from Lord Krishna that make up history's first real yoga text and give comprehensive definitions of the '''four principal Yogas''':

==On all Yoga in general==
:"When the mind comes to rest, restrained by the practice of yoga, and when beholding the Self, by the self, he is content in the Self." (B.G., Chapter 6, Verse 20) " He who finds his happiness within, his delight within, and his light within, this yogi attains the bliss of Brahman, becoming Brahman."

===On Raja Yoga===
:" Establishing a firm seat for himself in a clean place... having directed his mind to a single object, with his thought and the activity of the senses controlled, he should practice yoga for the purpose of self-realization. Holding the body, head and neck erect, motionless and steady, gazing at the tip of his own nose and not looking in any direction, with quieted mind, banishing fear, established in the brahmacharin vow of celibacy, controlling the mind, with thoughts fixed on Me, he should sit, concentrated, devoted to Me. Thus, continually disciplining himself, the yogin whose mind is subdued goes to nirvana, to supreme peace, to union with Me." (B.G., Chapter 6, Verses 11-15)

===On Bhakti Yoga===
:".... those who, renouncing all actions in Me, and regarding Me as the Supreme, worship me... of those whose thoughts have entered into Me, I am soon the deliverer from the ocean of death and transmigration, Arjuna. Keep your mind on Me alone, your intellect on Me. Thus you shall dwell in me hereafter." (B.G., Chapter 12, Verses 6-8) " And he who serves me with the yoga of unswerving devotion, transcending these qualities [binary opposites, like good and evil, pain and pleasure] is ready for absorption in Brahman." (B.G. Chapter 14, Verse 26)

===On Karma Yoga===
:" With the body, with the mind, with the intellect, even merely with the senses, the yogins perform action toward self-purification, having abandoned attachment. He who is disciplined in yoga, having abandoned the fruit of action, attains steady peace..." (B.G. Chapter 5, Verses 11-12)

===On Jnana Yoga===
:" When he perceives the various states of being as resting in the One, and from That alone spreading out, then he attains Brahman. / They who know, through the eye of knowledge, the distinction between the field and the knower of the field, as well as the liberation of beings from material nature, go to the Supreme." (B.G. Chapter 15, Verse 31 / Verse 35)

Raja Yoga is, in general, stilling of the mind and body through meditative techniques, geared at realizing one's true nature. Bhakti Yoga is simply love and devotion, epitomized today in such practices as worship of various Hindu deities, finding salvation in love of Christ, etc. Karma Yoga is essentially acting, or doing one's duties in life, without desire or expectation of reward, a sort of constant sacrifice of action to the Supreme. It includes, but is not limited to, dedication to one's chosen profession and its perfection to God and all sorts of community service, since they are inherently done without thought of personal gain. Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what is not, what is eternal and what is not eternal.

==Definition==
Cappeller's Sanskrit-English Dictionary defines '''Yoga''' as:
m. ''collection or concentration of the mind, meditation, contemplation'' ([http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/indologie/tamil/cap_search.html])

==Darshanas==
One of the six ''darshanas'' (schools) of Vedic/Hindu philosophy, and as such specifically refers to ''Raja Yoga'', the royal path of divine meditation on the one Brahman. A man who has taken up successful practice of Yoga is called a Yogi (also spelled Yogin), a woman Yogini. Several other forms of yoga exist within Hinduism including those of selfless action (''Karma Yoga''), selfless love (''Bhakti Yoga''), and discriminatory contemplation (''Jnana Yoga'').

Yogic philosophy is primarily Upanishadic with roots in Samkhya, and some scholars see some influence by Buddhism. It is a universal philosophy that enjoins the practitioner to pursue his or her own path to enlightenment, depending on personality and inclination. It is very much in line with its Vedic roots and the traditional pluralism of Hinduism. For this reason, it is easy for a "Christian", for example, to see Jesus the Christ as his or her own ishwar-devata. "Christ the Yogi" is not an uncommon concept in the world of Yoga today. Most religions, when viewed through their ethical and spiritual standpoints without the trappings of dogma, are easily reconcilable with Yoga philosophy in general because of its transcendental message.

== Tantra ==

While the Bhagavad Gita, Yoga Sutras and Hatha Yoga Pradipika are clearly founded on Upanishadic and Brahmanical thought, much of Yoga has been influenced by and expanded into Tantra. Tantra is more ritual based, having its roots in the first millennium CE, and incorporates much more of a deist base. Almost entirely founded on Shiva and Shakti worship, Tantra visualizes the ultimate Brahman as Param Shiva, manifested through Shiva (the passive, masculine force of Lord Shiva) and Shakti (the active, creative feminine force of his consort, variously known as Ma Kali, Durga, Shakti, Parvati and others). It focuses on the kundalini, a three and a half-coiled 'snake' of spiritual energy at the base of the spine that rises through the chakras until union between Shiva and Shakti (also known as samadhi) is achieved.

It views the body as means, rather than as obstruction, to understanding, and as such incorporates mantra (Sanskrit prayers, often to gods, that are repeated), yantra (complex symbols representing Shakti in her various forms through intricate geometric figures) and rituals that range from simple murti (statue representations of deities) or image worship to meditation on a corpse! While much tantra certainly, through its many texts (see kaularvatantra, mahanirvana tantra) and teachers (e.g. Abhinava Gupta, Ramakrishna [a saint who practiced Kali bhakti, Advaita Vedanta and tantra, etc.) seems odd and highly arcane at times, it is transparent as being completely yogic. Also, injunctions are made that most people are not suitable for Tantra, especially those of pashu-bhava (animal disposition). This implies that anyone who has not observed celibacy, honesty, respect of elders, bodily cleansing, ritual cleansing through prayer, and various other processes for up to twelve years at a time, and still retains base desires, greed, sexual motivations, etc. one is not fit to practice Tantra. For this reason, even more stringently than other Yogas, Tantra, both Hindu and Buddhist, remains a strictly Guru-initiated system that as yet finds few true adepts outside of India.

==The Yoga Sutra and its followers==

While meditative practices like asanas (postures) and pranayama (breath control) existed long before Patanjali, his brilliant eight-limbed system was what became the standard for almost all yoga schools that followed. Raja Yoga, being difficult to achieve (one must be focused on the Supreme), several Guru (teacher) lines came to make firm methodologies of realizing it.

:A side note on the Guru: Emphasized by all schools of yoga as indispensable, the Guru takes on quasi-divine proportions. Acknowledged as a siddha (adept) who has attained the eight siddhis (powers) afforded by yoga (they range from transportation of the mind to anywhere into the universe to the only truly desirable power, samadhi), the Guru guides the shisya (student) through yogic discipline from the beginning. When doing yoga, the student is urged to look long and hard for a sadguru (True Teacher) and then devote himself from imbibing that Guru's learning.

The most famous of the traditional Hindu schools of yoga, and the basis for nearly all modern systems, is Hatha Yoga. It is representative of all non-Bhakti-Karma-Jnana Yoga that has become so popular in the west today.

==Teachers==
Beginning with the arrival of Swami Vivekananda in 1893, there has been a steady flow of learned teachers that have brought the transcendental message of Yoga to the West. While the influence of these Yogins is deeply inscribed into the surface of the modern yogic ethos, both in India and America, a proliferation of 'yoga clinics' and non-spiritual yoga systems has been seen in the West, especially in the United States. While many Americans view it as an exercise system that simply enhances one's health, a much greater number in India (and a minority in America) still see it as it has been for over 5,000 years, whether in the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the writings of the Dalai Lama, or the "Yoga Boom" of the twentieth century, a system of spirituality universal in its application.

=== The Great Modern Yogins ===

First brought into America as early as the 1890s by the great yogin and disciple of Shri Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda, the Hindu representative in the Chicago Parliament of World Religions, Yoga has also been transported in the arms of many other great yogins and formed into stratified schools seeking to propagate Yoga in its great spiritual context. But these teachers have made their imprint in both India and America, and continue to serve as modern embodiments of Yoga.

Swami Rama Tirtha, who came from a deep yoga tradition in the Himalayas of India, was the founding spiritual head of the Himalayan Institute. He was the first yogin to come to America and be subjected to the scrutiny of modern science. Among other things, he stunned doctors by stopping the beat of his heart completely for several minutes.

Many modern schools of Hatha Yoga derive from the school of Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, who taught in Mysore, India from 1931 until his death in 1993. Among his students prominent in popularizing Yoga in the West were Sri K. Pattabhi Jois, B.K.S. Iyengar, Indra Devi and Krishnamacharya's son T.K.V. Desikachar. Desikachar founded the Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandiram in Madras (now Chennai), with the aim of
making available the heritage of yoga as taught by Krishnamacharya.

Other great yogins are Paramahansa Yogananda, practitioner of Kriya Yoga who arrived in America as a powerful example of the universality of Yoga. Sporting a cross, he came to the U.S. with the Hindu Bhagavad Gita in one hand and the Christian New Testament in the other, speaking to his disciples in pluralist ideology with Yoga as the binding force.

Sri Aurobindo, referred to as Aurobindo Ghosh by those who consider him as merely a philosopher rather than an Avatar, was not simply an intellectual genius born in West Bengal and educated in the best university in England. His masterful translations and interpretations of Hindu and Yogic scriptures are mystic and esoteric, and often are the opposite of what you will find in Max Muller's and other purely intellectual translations of the sacred Sanskrit texts, among which his translations/commentaries on the Hindu texts of the Upanishads and Gita are mystic in nature, and his epic Hindu/Yoga poem Savitri is a treasure of Hindu Yogic literature, formally being the longest poem ever written in English. Beyond this, his personal life is a fascinating testimony of the life of a true yogin. After the goddess Sri entered his being, he became Sri Aurobindo. Besides his influence and scholarly writing on Yoga, he also founded Sri Aurobindo Ashram in Pondicherry, that continues to propagate the practice of Integral Yoga, which is a Tantric synthesis of the four main Yogas (Karma, Jnana, Bhakti and Raja).

Gopi Krishna was a Kashmiri office worker and spiritual seeker who was born in 1903, and wrote autobiographical accounts of his spiritual experiences with Yoga. His most famous one is "Kundalini": Path to Higher Consciousness." Gopi Krishna's graphic accounts of his experiences stand out as among the clearest journals documenting a spiritual transformation. They are highly recommended as reading for anyone interested in Yogic phenomena.

Swami Sivananda (born in Pattamadai, Tamil Nadu, India in 1887), one of the greatest yoga masters of 20th century has authored over 200 highly inspiring books on yoga. Sivananda has also established Sivananda ashram of Rishikesh, India and is the founder of Divine Life Society. His disciple, Swami Satyananda (born in Almorah, Uttar Pradesh, India in 1923), has established International Yoga Fellowship movement, Bihar School of Yoga and Bihar Yoga Bharati, world's first university on yoga. The university is now headed by his disciple, Swami Niranjananda.

Mahamandaleshwar Paramhans Swami Maheshwarananda (Swamiji) comes from Rajasthan, India, and has been living in Vienna, Austria since 1972. Swamiji is the author of the scientific master-system Yoga in Daily Life and founder of the International Sri Deep Madhavananda Ashram Fellowship and ''Yoga in Daily Life'' ashrams and centres worldwide. He dedicated his whole life to help humanity through yoga and to evoke the ancient spiritual heritage of Sat Sanatana Dharma (the True Eternal Faith, ''sanatana dharma'' being another name for Hinduism).

Some modern styles of Yoga popular in America, Australia, Europe, India:

*Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga - the style taught by Sri K. Pattabhi Jois.
*Iyengar Yoga - pioneered by B.K.S. Iyengar
*Viniyoga
*Kriya Yoga - yoga of internal movement
*Nada Yoga - yoga of sound
*Indra Devi
*Paramahansa Yogananda
*Yoga Nidra - yoga of divine sleep (a la Vishnu)
*Sahaja Yoga
*Yoga in Daily Life - The system

==History of Yoga==

===Pre-Vedic (ca. 6000 - 3000 BCE [?])===
The history of yoga may go back anywhere from five to eight thousand years ago, depending on the perspective of the historian. It evolved wholly in the land of India, and while it is supposed by some scholars that yogic practices were originally the domain of the indigenous, non-Aryan (and pre-Vedic) peoples, it was first clearly expounded in the great Vedic shastras (religious texts).

Pre-Vedic findings are taken, by some commentators, to show that "yoga" existed in some form well before the establishment of Aryan culture in the north Indian subcontinent.
:A triangular amulet seal uncovered at the Mohenjo-daro archeological excavation site depicts a male, seated on a low platform in a cross legged position, with arms outstretched. His head is crowned with the horns of a water-buffalo. He is surrounded by animals (a fish, an alligator, and a snake) and diverse symbols. The likeness on the seal and understandings of the surrounding culture have led to its widely accepted identification as "''Pashupati''", Lord of the Beasts, a prototype and predecessor of the modern day Hindu god Shiva. The pose is a very familiar one to yogins, representing Shiva much as he is seen today, the meditating ascetic contemplating divine truth in "yoga-posture."
:(Ref. [http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/middle_east/mohenjo_daro.html 1], [http://www.harappa.com/script/parpola8.html#6 2])

===Vedic (ca. 2000-1500 BCE)===
David Frawley, a Vedic scholar, writes: "Yoga can be traced back to the Rig Veda itself, the oldest Hindu text which speaks about yoking our mind and insight to the Sun of Truth. Great teachers of early Yoga include the names of many famous Vedic sages like Vasishta, Yajnavalkya, and Jaigishavya."

Ideas of uniting mind, body and soul in the cosmic one, however, do not find real yogic explication until the most important mystic texts of Hinduism, the Upanishads or Vedanta, commentaries on the Vedas.

===Upanishadic (ca. 800-100 BCE)===
Explicit examples of the concept and terminology of yoga appear in the Upanishads (primarily thirteen principal texts of the Vedanta, or the "End of the Vedas," that are the culmination of all Vedic philosophy)

While protracted discussions of the ultimate, infinite Self, or Atman, and realization of Brahman, are the true legacy of the Upanishads, the first principal Yoga text was the Bhagavad Gita ("The Lord's Song"), also known as Gitopanishad.

In the Maitrayaniya Upanishad (200-300 BCE) yoga surfaces as:
:"Shadanga-Yoga - The uniting discipline of the six limbs (shad-anga), as expounded in the Maitrayaniya-Upanishad: (1) breath control (pranayama), (2) sensory inhibition (pratyahara), (3) meditation (dhyana), (4) concentration (dharana), (5) examination (tarka), and (6) ecstasy (samadhi)."
:Reference: http://www.orientalia.org/term3923.html

In the Katha Upanishad yoga surfaces as:
:"When the five instruments of knowledge stand still, together with the mind and when the intellect does not move, that is called the Supreme State. - III.10
:This, the firm Control of the senses, is what is called yoga. One must then be vigilant; for yoga can be both beneficial and injurious. - III.11"
:"Having received this wisdom taught by the King of Death and the entire process of yoga, Nachiketa became free from impurities and death and attained Brahman. Thus it will be also with any other who knows, in this manner, the inmost Self. - III.18"

====Commentary====
''"In the Kathopanishad there is a hint given to us as to how we can practice Yoga. There are one or two verses in the Kathopanishad which give the sum and substance of the practice of Yoga, which is also the same Yoga explained in greater detail in the system of Patanjali. The Kathopanishad says, in these verses, that the subtle essences of objects are superior to the sensory powers, they are higher in their degree and in quality. Higher than these essences of objects is the mind; higher than the mind is the intellect; higher than the intellect is the cosmic intellect called Mahat. It is also called Hiranyagarbha. Higher than that is the peaceful undifferentiated causal state called Avyakta. Higher than that is supreme Absolute, Purusha. The same Upanishad mentions the system of practice in another verse. The senses have to be rooted in the mind. The mind has to be centered in the intellect. The intellect has to be fixed in the Cosmic Intellect, and the Cosmic Intellect has to be united with the Peaceful Being. Sometimes this Peaceful Being, Shanta-Atman, is identified with the Isvara of the Vedanta. This is how we have to control the mind." ''
:Reference The Essence of The Aitareya and Taittiriya Upanishads by Swami Krishnananda The Divine Life Society Sivananda Ashram, Rishikesh, India [http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/aitt_0.html]
:See also: [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad Wikisources - Aitareya Upanishad], [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad Wikisource - Taittiriya Upanishad]

===Classical (ca. 200 CE)===

====Patanjali's Yoga Sutras====

After the Bhagavad Gita, the next seminal work on Yoga is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. The Yoga Sutras are a compilation of Yogic thought that is largely Raja Yogic in nature, it was codified some time between the 2nd century BC and the 3rd century by Patanjali, and prescribes adherence to "eight limbs" (the sum of which constitute "Ashtanga Yoga") to quiet one's mind and merge with the infinite. These eight limbs not only systematized conventional moral principles espoused by the Gita, but elucidated the practice of Raja Yoga in a more detailed manner. Indeed, his "eight-limbed" path has formed the foundation for Raja Yoga and much of Tantra Yoga (a Hindu deific, Shiva-Shakti yoga system) and Vajrayana Buddhism (Buddhist Tantra Yoga) that came after. It goes as follows:

*Yama (moral codes)
*Niyama (self-purification and study)
*Asana (posture)
*Pranayama (breath control)
*Pratyahara (sense control)
*Dharana (concentration)
*Dhyana (meditation)
*Samadhi (absorption)

Patanjali, whose own life is virtually unknown, had the impact of further spreading in compact form the essence of Raja Yoga. Some legends speak of his being Adinaga, the first snake, the lower half of his body being that of a snake, upon which the great Hindu God Vishnu reclines. Many say that he was the same Patanjali who wrote commentaries on Panini's singular masterwork on Sanskrit grammar. Others speak of the legends of his birth. A few even dispute his existence and attribute the Yoga Sutras to many authors, but this is highly unlikely due to the structural, linguistic and stylistic uniformity of the short work. His base is Hindu Samkhya philosophy and shows itself to have been highly influenced by the Upanishads.

His Yoga Sutras espouse a threefold system for attainment of samadhi through tapas (austerities; discipline; literally "heat"), swadhyaya (self-study) and ishwar-pranidhana (contemplation of God).

While Patanjali accepts the idea of what he terms "ishta-devata" (worship of deities as manifestations of the single Brahman), his overall "ishwar" is not a conventional God with personal form and speaks more to a universal, attributeless Brahman, an impersonal, unknowable, infinite force that is all and transcends all.

Together, the Bhagavad Gita and Yoga Sutras form the theoretical and philosophical base of all yoga. However, as far as Raja Yoga (meditation yoga) goes, it is most precisely captured by Patanjali's Yoga-Sutras.

====450 - 850 CE====
The '''Yoga-bhasya''', Veda Vyasa's commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali could have been written as early as 450 CE. Professor J. H. Woods, places the date of the Yoga-bhasya between 650 CE to 850 CE. Trevor Leggett places the date closer to 600 CE based on a commentary to the Yoga-bhasya published in Sanskrit in 1952 in the Madras Government Oriental Series #94 by Polakam Sri Rama Sastri and S. R. Krishnamurti Sastri. Evidence strongly suggests that this sub-commentary was written by Sankara who lived about 700 CE.

Vacaspati Mishra's '''Tattva Vaisharadi''', a commentary on the Yoga-bhasya was written in ca. 850 CE. An authoritative translation of this work can be found in "The Yoga System of Patanjali" by Professor James Haughton Woods.

:Reference: "Sankara on the Yoga Sutras" Trevor Leggett, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, ISBN: 81-208-1028-7
:Reference: "The Yoga System of Patanjali" James Haughton Woods, Harvard Oriental Series, 1914, (out of print) ISBN:81-208-0577-1 (reprint: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi)

====1350 - 1400 CE====

'''Hatha Yoga Pradipika'''
In the West, outside of Hindu culture, "yoga" is usually understood to refer to "hatha yoga." Hatha Yoga is, however, a particular system propagated by Swami Swatamarama, a yogic sage of the 15th century in India.

After the Bhagavad Gita and Yoga Sutras, the most fundamental text of Yoga is the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, written by Swami Swatamarama, that in great detail lists all the main asanas, pranayama, mudra and bandha that are familiar to today's yoga student. It runs in the line of Hindu yoga (to distinguish from Buddhist and Jain yoga) and is dedicated to Lord Adinath, a name for Lord Shiva (the Hindu god of destruction), who is alleged to have imparted the secret of Hatha Yoga to his divine consort Parvati. It is common for yogins and tantriks of several disciplines to dedicate their practices to a deity under the Hindu ishta-devata concept (see Patanjali's Yoga Sutras) while always striving to achieve beyond that: Brahman. Hindu philosophy in the Vedanta and Yoga streams, as the reader will remember, views only one thing as being ultimately real: Satchidananda Atman, the Existence-Consciousness-Blissful Self. Very Upanishadic in its notions, worship of Gods is a secondary means of focus on the higher being, a conduit to realization of the Divine Ground. Hatha Yoga follows in that vein and thus successfully transcends being particularly grounded in any one religion.

Hatha is a Sanskrit word meaning 'sun' (ha) and 'moon' (tha), representing opposing energies: hot and cold, male and female, positive and negative, similar but not completely analogous to yin and yang. Hatha yoga attempts to balance mind and body via physical exercises, or "asanas", controlled breathing, and the calming of the mind through relaxation and meditation. Asanas teach poise, balance & strength and were originally (and still) practiced to improve the body's physical health and clear the mind in preparation for meditation in the pursuit of enlightenment. "Asana" means "immovable", i.e. static, and often confused with the dynamic 108 natya karanas described in Natya Shastra and, along with the elements of Bhakti Yoga, is embodied in the contemporary form of Bharatanatyam.

By balancing two streams, often known as ida (mental) and pingala (bodily) currents, the sushumna nadi (current of the Self) is said to rise, opening various chakras (cosmic power points within the body, starting from the base of the spine and ending right above the head) until samadhi is attained. Ida and pingala are represented in the dynamism of natya yoga by lasya (female) and tandava (male) aspects, and bear direct reference to the Taoist dualism.

By forging a powerful depth of concentration and mastery of the body and mind, Hatha Yoga practices seek to still the mental waters and allow for apprehension of oneself as that which one always was, Brahman. Hatha Yoga is essentially a manual for scientifically taking one's body through stages of control to a point at which one-pointed focus on the unmanifested Brahman is possible: it is said to take its practicioner to the peaks of Raja Yoga.

In the West, hatha yoga has become wildly popular as a purely physical exercise regimen divorced of its original purpose, and thus, devoid of its original efficacy. Currently, it is estimated that about 30 million Americans practice hatha yoga. But in the Indian subcontinent the traditional practice is still to be found. The guru-shishya (teacher-student) relationship that exists without need for sanction from non-religious institutions, and which gave rise to all the great yogins who made way into international consciousness in the 20th century, has been maintained in Indian, Nepalese, and some Tibetan circles.

In India, whose Hindu population combines to a staggering 800 million, Yoga is a daily part of life. It is common to see people performing Surya Namaskar (a yogic set of asanas and pranayam dedicated to Surya, the Hindu God of the Sun) in the morning or speaking about food diets and body therapy entirely based on Yoga or the Hindu healing system of Ayurveda. The age-old tradition of Yoga has continued uninterrupted by the its popularity in the west (although more established schools like the Bihar School of Yoga work from within India to produce Yoga texts to send abroad).

In addition, hundreds and thousands sanyasins (renunciates) and sadhus (Hindu monks) wander in and out of city temples, village country sides and are to be found smattered all across the foothills of the Himalayas and the Vindhya Range of central India. For India's holy-men, Yoga is as fundamental as lifeblood. To see a man meditating at the steps of a temple, or even wondering contemplatively on the roadside, is not uncommon even to the more Westernized crowds. It is the same in Tibet, where the Buddhist establishment's lifestyle is permeated with the Yoga or yogic practices, which is ultimately not a once-a-day routine, but a constant immersion in self-discovery.
:See also: [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatha_Yoga_Pradipika Wikisource - Hatha Yoga Pradipika]

Western development of yoga has taken less of a spiritual approach and focused more on the mind/body connection. While Yoga is a religion to many, most practitioners in the west separate yoga from their spiritual beliefs, causing yoga to strictly stay within the containment of an exercise class or just within the "keeping healthy" aspect of life.

==Crowley on Yoga==

“Yoga means Union.”
- Aleister Crowley, Eight Lectures on Yoga.

While Liber O gives the essentials of magick practice, giving Golden Dawn techniques of working with the subtle levels of energy and magick light, in Liber E we find a series of basic techniques for training the mind and body in the practice of yogic disciplines. Taken together, these two manuals form the foundations of practice to establish the solid base of a pyramid of magick and yoga that will, with persistence, discipline and integrity, eventually lead one to the heights of attainment.

The basic outline of yogic practices given in Liber E are further elaborated upon in Crowley’s Book 4 Part I, as well as his smaller work Eight Lectures on Yoga. In discussing the teachings of the “Great Men” of the past, Crowley writes in Book 4:

“The methods advised by all these people have a startling resemblance to one another. They recommend "virtue" (of various kinds), solitude, absence of excitement, moderation in diet, and finally a practice which some call prayer and some call meditation. (The former four may turn out on examination to be merely conditions favourable to the last.)”

“It is by freeing the mind from external influences, whether casual or emotional, that it obtains power to see somewhat of the truth of things.”

Even more succinct, in Eight Lectures on Yoga, Crowley informs us of the “whole of the technique of Yoga”:

“Sit Still. Stop thinking. Shut up. Get out!”

The brilliance of Crowley’s adaptation of yoga is the disposal of countless unnecessary superstitions, cultural trappings, and misinformation to reveal the pristine glory of systematic set of physical and mental exercises which will aid the magician in concentration, control of force, and increased vitality and health.

The Yoga Sutras, written by the sage Patanjali, first outlined the path of ashtanga or “eight limbed yoga” as a set of guidelines on how to live one’s life, with attention to diet, self-discipline, and ethical and moral considerations.

The first limb is yama, a set of five ethical standards to be followed: ahimsa (non-violence), satya (speaking the truth), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (sexual continence), and aparigraha (non-attachment). Crowley redefined yama to reflect the changes in consciousness and responsibility which humanity has progressed to, by saying “Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law. That is Yama.”

The second limb is niyama, traditionally interpreted as five observances of self-discipline and witnessing of the sacred in one’s life. These are saucha (cleanliness); samtosa (contentment); tapas (spiritual austerities); svadhyaya (introspection); and Isvara pranidhana (surrender to God). In Eight Lectures on Yoga, Crowley interprets this limb generally as “virtue,” expanding them from five to seven virtues which correspond to seven sacred planets of the ancients. Saturn represents the virtue of discipline and endurance, as well as embracing the Trance of Sorrow; Jupiter the “vital, creative, genial element of the cosmos” as the selflessness of universal love, and the Trance of Joy; Mars stands for the virtue of energy, the ability to conquer the obstacles on the path, in particular the physical obstacles, as well as courage and passion; unto the Sun is ascribed the virtue of harmony, the “centralization of the faculties, their control, their motivation;” to Venus is given the “ecstatic acceptance of all possible experience and the transcendental assumption of all particular experience into the one experience;” Mercury represents the virtue of adaptability and indifference, the adroitness and flexibility that is requisite in both the mind and body of the yogin to master the path; while finally, the Moon is the purity of aspiration, as well as the many siddhis or magick powers which will arise. Crowley also adds two further planetary associations, for Uranus and Neptune. The niyama for Uranus is “the discovery of the True Will,” further stating that this niyama “is the most important of the tasks of the Yogi, because, until he has achieved it, he can have no idea who he is or where he is going.” For Neptune, he attributes spiritual intuition, the “imaginative faculty, the shadowing forth of the nature of the illimitable light,” as well as a strong dose of humour. Finally, for Pluto we are told that he is “the utmost sentinel of all; of him it is not wise to speak,” after which he explains that this is because “nothing at all is known about him.” Perhaps it is for some future yogin to discover the niyama of this distant chunk of ice!

The third and fourth limbs of ashtanga are asana, the various postures necessary for meditation, and pranayama, the control of breath. Whereas traditional yoga utilizes several sets of asanas for practice and mastery, Crowley recommended selecting one position and mastering it. “The real object of Asana is control of the muscular system, conscious and unconscious, so that no messages from the body can reach the mind.” Crowley points out the many health benefits of asana, including

“The conquest of Asana makes for endurance. If you keep in constant practice, you ought to find that about ten minutes in the posture will rest you as much as a good night's sleep.”

Crowley defined pranayama as “control of force,” again cutting through profuse amounts of mystic obfuscation in the traditional literature by describing the process thus:

“This simply means that you get a stop watch, and choose a cycle of breathing out and breathing in. Both operations should be made as complete as possible. The muscular system must be taxed to its utmost to assist the expansion and contraction of the lungs.”

He also describes the classic results of pranayama practice: perspiration, automatic rigidity, buchari-siddhi (“jumping about like a frog”), and levitation.

The fifth and sixth limbs are pratyahara, the withdrawal of senses, and dharana, concentration. The former is described in Eight Lectures as “introspection, but it also means a certain type of psychological experience,” citing the direct experience of feeling that you do not have a nose as an example. Going into much more detail in Book 4, he describes the process of simply watching the mind think. With dharana, we move into concentration proper. Here Liber E gives several practices for training the mind to concentrate one-pointedly, such as visualizing the elemental tattvas for a minute or more, and eventually working up to more complex images. Other practices given in Eight Lectures for concentration include Liber Astarte, Liber III vel Jugorum, and the practice “useful when walking in a christian city” of saying Apo Pantaos Kakodaimonos, with an “outward and downward sweep of the arm,” anytime one passes a person in “religious garb.”

Dyana and Samadhi, the seventh and eigth limbs of yoga, are traditionally associated with “meditation” proper, and ecstasy, respectively. One necessarily leads to the other, and samadhi is the crown of the system, the chrism of the yogin. In dyana is a development of the introspection of pratyahara and the concentration of dharana, resulting in the single minded force of dhyana. This process, taken to conclusion, results in the ecstasy of Samadhi. In The Soldier and the Hunchback (Liber 148), Crowley writes of this experience:

“Not what Christians call faith, be sure! But what (possibly) the forgers of the Epistles – those eminent mystics! – meant by faith. What I call Samadhi!”

“Ah, say the adepts, Samadhi is not the end, but the beginning. You must regard Samadhi as the normal state of mind which enables you to begin your researches, just as waking is the state from which you rise to Samadhi, sleep the state from which you rose to waking. And only from Sammasamadhi – continuous trance of the right kind – can you rise up as it were on tiptoe and peer through the clouds unto the mountains.”

==External links==
* [http://www.yrec.org/ Yoga Research and Education Center]
* [http://www.orientalia.org/dic1.html International Yoga Dictionary]
* [http://www.3ho.org 3ho.org: Kundalini Yoga]
* [http://www.sacredspaceyogasanctuary.com 'Sacred Space' Kundalini Meditation]
* [http://www.patanjali.ch patanjali.ch]
* [http://www.sahajayoga.org Sahaja Yoga]
* [http://bharatanatyam.medhahari.com/ Bhakti Yoga in Bharatanatyam]
* [http://www.archive.org/movies/movieslisting-browse.php?collection=opensource_movies&cat=bharatanatyam Collection of streaming videos illustrating Natya Yoga]
* [http://www.religiousbook.net/Books/Online_books/Pr/Practices_25.html Religiousbook.net article on Hatha Yoga]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2004). [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga Yoga]. Retrieved Sept. 22, 2004.

[[Category:Systems]]
[[Category:Hinduism]]

Vedanta

2005-07-19T10:39:45Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Vedanta''', meaning literally the end section of the [[Vedas]], is a branch of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] philosophy. It is a system of Jnana [[Yoga]] that attempts to guide the individual to [[enlightenment]]. It is drawn from the [[Upanishads]], considered the fundamental essence of all the Vedas, and some of the earlier [[Aranyakas]]. The three branches of Vedanta best known in the West are Advaita Vedanta, Vishishtadvaita, and Dvaita. Other than Shri Adishankara, Shri Ramanuja and Shri Madhvacharya, the founders of each of the three main Vedantic divisions, other important pre-modern Vedantins include Bhaskara, Vallabha, Caitanya, Nimbarka, Vacaspati Misra, Suresvara, and Vijnanabhiksu. In the modern period, Vedantins include Ramakrishna Paramahansa, Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Swami Sivananda and Sri Ramana Maharshi. These modern thinkers represent of the Advaita Vedanta school. Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write and develop their ideas as well, although their works are not as widely known outside of India.

Historically, in order for one [[guru]] to be considered ''acharya'' or great teacher of a philosophical school of Vedanta, such acharya had to write commentaries on three important texts in Vedanta, Upanishads, [[Bhagavad Gita]], and the [[Brahma Sutras]]. Accordingly, Adi Sankara, Ramanuja and Shri Madhvacharya have written commentaries on all three canonical texts.

While the traditional Vedic 'karma kanda', or [[ritual]]istic components of [[religion]], continued to be practiced as [[meditation|meditative]] and propitiatory rites to guide society, through the [[Brahmin]]s, to self-knowledge, more ''jnana'' ("knowledge")–centered understandings began to emerge, mystical streams of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity rather rituals. In earlier writings, the Sanskrit word ''Vedanta'' simply referred to the Upanishads, the most speculative and philosophical of the Vedic texts. In the medieval period, the word Vedanta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads. Traditional Vedanta considered scriptural evidence, or ''sabdapramana,'' as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or ''pratyaksa,'' and logical inference, or ''anumana,'' were considered to be subordinate.

The systematization of Vedantic ideas into one coherent treatise was undertaken by Badarayana, in the Vedanta Sutra, or Brahma Sutra, which appeared around the time of Christ. The cryptic aphorisms of the Vedanta Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries claiming to be faithful to the original. Consistent throughout Vedanta, however, is the exhortation that ritual be eschewed in favor of the individual's quest for truth through meditation governed by a loving morality, secure in the knowledge that infinite bliss awaits the seeker. Near all existing sects of Hinduism are directly or indirectly influenced by the thought systems developed by Vedantic thinkers. Hinduism to a great extent owes its survival to the formation of the coherent and logically advanced systems of Vedanta.

Advaita Vedanta has greatly influenced modern science. Schrödinger was a Vedantist and claimed to have been inspired by it in his discovery of quantum theory. According to his biographer Walter Moore: "The unity and continuity of Vedanta are reflected in the unity and continuity of wave mechanics. In 1925, the world view of physics was a model of a great machine composed of separable interacting material particles. During the next few years, Schrödinger and Heisenberg and their followers created a universe based on superimposed inseparable waves of probability amplitudes. This new view would be entirely consistent with the Vedantic concept of All in One.". Additionally, Fritjof Capra's widely proclaimed book ''The Tao of Physics'' is one among several that pursues this viewpoint as it investigates the relationship between modern, particularly quantum, physics and the core philosophies of various Eastern religions, including [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Taoism]]. Unfortunately, such writings by western authors often run the risk of oversimplifying and ignoring important differences between Eastern religions. For instance, pre-modern Vedantins argued for the existence of an eternal self, or [[atman]], while Buddhists have denied this possibility.

==See also==
* [[Hinduism]]
* [[Vedas]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/ Advaita Vedanta homepage]
*[http://www.vedanta.org/ Vedanta Society of Southern California]
*[http://www.sfvedanta.org/ Vedanta Society of Northern California]
*[http://www.vedanta-newyork.org/articles/vedanta_influence_2.htm Vedanta's influence ]
*[http://freespace.virgin.net/dennis.waite/advaita From the Unreal to the Real]
*[http://www.geocities.com/neovedanta/ NeoVedanta]
*[http://www.vedanta.org/reading/monthly/articles/2000/8.vedanta_in_america.html "Vedanta in America"]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedanta Vedanta]''. Retrieved on 02/28/2005.

[[Category:Hinduism]]

Hindu philosophy

2005-07-19T10:39:06Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Hindu philosophy''' (one of the main divisions of Indian philosophy) is traditionally seen through the prism of six different systems (called '''darshanas''' in Sanskrit) that are listed here and makes up the main belief systems of [[Hinduism]]. The characteristic of this philosophy is to consider ''being'' (consciousness) together with the other issues and is part of the thought systems of the vast [[Vedas|Vedic]] [[religion]] of [[Hinduism]].

== Hindu Philosophy: The Six Main Schools of Thought ==

The philosophic and theological diversity of [[Hinduism]] is limitless, being nurtured by the fundamentally eclectic and liberal universalism that is its defining characteristic. It is impossible to summarize all the schools of thought and inquiry produced or harboured over the millenia by the peoples of [[India]]. Some of the more ancient and long-established philosophies are elaborated upon below.

=== Samkhya ===

[[Samkhya]] is widely regarded to be the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism. Its philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two eternal realities: purusha and prakrti. The purushas (souls) are many, conscious and devoid of all qualities. They are the silent spectators of prakrti (matter or nature), which is composed of three gunas (dispositions): satva, rajas and tamas (steadiness, activity and dullness). When the equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed, the world order evolves. This disturbance is due to the proximity of Purusha and prakrti. Liberation (kaivalya), then, consists of the realisation of the difference between the two.

This was a dualistic philosophy. But there are differences between the Samkhya and Western forms of dualism. In the West, the fundamental distinction is between mind and body. In Samkhya, however, it is between the self (purusha) and matter, and the latter incorporates what Westerners would normally refer to as "mind".

=== Nyaya ===
:''Main article: Nyaya''

The Nyaya school of philosophical speculation is based on a text called the Nyaya Sutra. It was written by Aksapada Gautama at an indeterminate date, but probably in the second century BCE. The most important contribution made by this school is its methodology. This is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by most of the other Indian schools (orthodox or not), much in the same way that Western science and philosophy can be said to be largely based on Aristotelian logic.

But Nyaya is not merely logic for its own sake. Its followers believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to obtain release from suffering. They therefore took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and to distinguish these from mere false opinions. According to the Nyaya school, there are exactly four sources of knowledge (pramanas): perception, inference, comparison and testimony. Knowledge obtained through each of these can of course still be either valid or invalid, and the Nyaya scholars again went to great pains to identify, in each case, what it took to make knowledge valid, in the process coming up with a number of explanatory schemes. In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to contemporary Western analytical philosophy. An important later development in Nyaya is the system of Navya Nyaya (New Logic).

=== Vaisheshika ===

The Vaisheshika system, which was founded by the sage Kanada, postulates an atomic pluralism. In terms of this school of thought, all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a certain number of atoms.

Although the Vaishesika system developed independently from the Nyaya, the two eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only perception and inference as being such.

===Yoga ===

The [[Yoga]] system is generally considered to have arisen from the Samkhya philosophy. Its primary text is the [[Bhagavad Gita]], which explores the four primary systems. The sage [[Patanjali]] wrote an extremely influential text on Raja Yoga (or meditational) entitled the "Yoga Sutra". The most significant difference from Samkhya is that the Yoga school not only incorporates the concept of Ishvara (a personal God) into its metaphysical worldview, which the Samkhya does not, but also upholds Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate. This is because Ishvara is the only aspect of ''Purusha'' that has not become entangled with ''prakrti''. It also utilizes the [[Brahman]]/Atman terminology and concepts that are found in the [[Upanishads]], thus breaking from the Samkhya school by adopting concepts of Vedantic [[monoism]]. The Yoga system lays down elaborate prescriptions for gradually gaining physical and mental control and mastery over the "personal self", both body and mind, until one's consciousness has intensified sufficiently to allow for the awareness of one's "real Self" (the soul, or Atman), as distinct from one's feelings, thoughts and actions. Realization of the goal of Yoga is known as moksha, [[nirvana]] and samadhi. They all speak to the realization of the Atman as being nothing other than the infinite [[Brahman]]. See the articles on [[Yoga]] and [[History of Yoga]] for an in-depth discussion.

=== Purva Mimamsa ===

The main objective of the Purva ("earlier") Mimamsa school was to establish the authority of the [[Vedas]]. Consequently this school's most valuable contribution to [[Hinduism]] was its formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its adherents believed that revelation must be proved by reasoning, that it should not be accepted blindly as dogma. In keeping with this belief, they laid great emphasis on dharma, which they understood as the performance of Vedic rituals. The Mimamsa accepted the logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, but felt that these paid insufficient attention to right action. They believed that the other schools of thought, which pursued '''moksha''' (release) as their ultimate aim, were not completely free from desire and selfishness. In Hinduism, we are all illuminated under the light of god. When we have moksha, we believe that we become closer to god. According to the Mimamsa, the very striving for liberation stemmed from a selfish desire to be free. Only by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas could one attain salvation (rather than liberation). At a later stage, however, the Mimamsa school changed its views in this regard and began to teach the doctrines of God and mukti (freedom). Its adherents then advocated the release or escape from the soul from its constraints through what was known as jnana (enlightened activity). While Mimamsa does not receive much scholarly attention these days, its influence can be felt in the life of the practising Hindu. All Hindu ritual, ceremony and religious law is influenced by it.

=== Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta ===

The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school, more commonly known as the [[Vedanta]], concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the [[Upanishads]] rather than on the ritualistic injunctions of the Brahmanas.

While the traditional Vedic 'karma kanda' (ritualistic components of religion) continued to be practiced as meditative and propitiatory rites gearing society (through the [[Brahmins]]) to Self-knowledge, more jnaan (knowledge) centered understandings began to emerge, mystical streams of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity rather than more practical aspects of religion like rituals and rites. The more abstruse [[Vedanta]] (meaning literally the end of the Vedas) is the essence of the Vedas, encapsulated in the Upanishads which are commentaries on the four original books (Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva). Vedantic thought drew on Vedic cosmology, hymns and philosophy. The first Upanishad, the Brihadaranyaka, appeared as far back as three and a half thousand years ago. While thirteen or so Upanishads are accepted as principal, over a hundred exist. The most influential Vedantic thought, [[advaita vedanta]], based on the Upanishads, considers the consciousness of the Self - Jeevatma - to be continuous with and indistinguishable from the consciousness of the Supreme or Brahman - Paramatma.

The Upanishads are acknowledged by scholars and philosophers from both East and West, from Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi and Aurobindo Ghosh to Erwin Schrödinger, Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson, to be beautiful in poetry and superlatively rich in philosophy. But they do not form a unified syatem or set of writings.

The [[upanishads]] are traditionally classed into twelve or thirteen primary Upanishads, perhaps the oldest of which is the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, believed by some to have been first written down as early as c.1500 BCE.

The cryptic way in which the aphorisms of the Vedanta sutras are presented leaves the door wide open for a multitude of interpretations. This led to a proliferation of Vedanta schools. Each of these interprets the texts in its own way and has produced its own series of sub-commentaries - all claiming to be faithful to the original.

===='''Monism: Advaita Vedanta''' ====

[[Advaita Vedanta]] is probably the best known of all Vedanta schools. Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a "monistic" (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness. Its first great consolidator was Shankaracharya (788-820). Continuing the line of thought of some of the Upanishadic teachers, and also that of his own teacher Gaudapada, Shankara expounded the doctrine of Advaita - a nondualistic reality. By analysing the three states of experience (waking, dreaming and deep sleep) he exposed the relative nature of the world and established the supreme truth of the Advaita: the non-dual reality of Brahman in which atman (the individual soul) and [[brahman]] (the ultimate reality expressed in the trimurti) are identified absolutely. His theories were controversial from the start and some of his contemporaries accused him of teaching [[Buddhism]] while pretending to be a Hindu. However, many more see Adi Sankara as drawing from monist concepts ingrained in texts pre-dating the [[Buddha]], like the more abstuse sections of the Vedas, as well as the older Upanishads, several of which are conservatively and thus reliably dated as far back as 1000 BCE, if not 1500 BCE.

Subsequent Vedantins debated whether the reality of Brahman was ''saguna'' (with attributes) or ''nirguna'' (without attributes). Belief in the concept of [[Saguna Brahman]] gave rise to a proliferation of devotional attitudes and more widespread worship of [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]]. [[Advaita Vedanta]] is strictly grounded in a belief that the ultimate truth is [[Nirguna Brahman]]. The Vishistadvaita and [[Dvaita]] schools believed in an ultimately saguna Brahman.

===='''Qualified Monism: Vishistadvaita]'''====

Ramanuja (1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of ''Saguna Brahman'', the concept of [[Brahman]] or God, the ultimate power, having a definate form, name and attributes: he saw [[Vishnu|Sriman Narayana]] as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate reality had three aspects: Ishvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.

===='''Dualism: [[Dvaita]]'''====

Like Ramanuja, Madhva (1218 - 1317) identified God with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic and is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic).

== Synthesis: Acintya Bheda-Abheda Vedanta ==

Chaitanya (1486-1534), a devotee of Krishna, proposed a synthesis between the monist and dualist philosophies by stating that the soul is equally distinct (bheda) and non-distinct (abheda) from [[God]], whom he identified as [[Krishna]], and that this, although unthinkable (acintya), is experiencable in devotion.

== See also==
*[[Swami Vivekananda]]
*[[Sri Aurobindo]]

==External links==
*[http://www.philo.demon.co.uk/Darshana.htm Indian philosophy pages]
*[http://www.connect.net/ron/indianphilosophy.html An essay]
*[http://www.orientalia.org/dic2.html Encyclopedic Dictionary of Indian Philosophy]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/1863/index.html Indian Religion and Philosophy]
*[http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/hindu_trinity.php Hindu Trinity]
*[http://www.spiritual-happiness.com/scriptures.html Spiritual Sanskrit Scriptures] In Streaming [[RealPlayer]]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy Hindu philosophy]''. Retrieved on July 19. 2005.

[[Category:Hinduism]]

Hindu philosophy

2005-07-19T10:38:42Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Hindu philosophy''' (one of the main divisions of Indian philosophy) is traditionally seen through the prism of six different systems (called '''darshanas''' in Sanskrit) that are listed here and makes up the main belief systems of [[Hinduism]]. The characteristic of this philosophy is to consider ''being'' (consciousness) together with the other issues and is part of the thought systems of the vast [[Vedas|Vedic]] [[religion]] of [[Hinduism]].

== Hindu Philosophy: The Six Main Schools of Thought ==

The philosophic and theological diversity of [[Hinduism]] is limitless, being nurtured by the fundamentally eclectic and liberal universalism that is its defining characteristic. It is impossible to summarize all the schools of thought and inquiry produced or harboured over the millenia by the peoples of [[India]]. Some of the more ancient and long-established philosophies are elaborated upon below.

=== Samkhya ===

[[Samkhya]] is widely regarded to be the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism. Its philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two eternal realities: purusha and prakrti. The purushas (souls) are many, conscious and devoid of all qualities. They are the silent spectators of prakrti (matter or nature), which is composed of three gunas (dispositions): satva, rajas and tamas (steadiness, activity and dullness). When the equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed, the world order evolves. This disturbance is due to the proximity of Purusha and prakrti. Liberation (kaivalya), then, consists of the realisation of the difference between the two.

This was a dualistic philosophy. But there are differences between the Samkhya and Western forms of dualism. In the West, the fundamental distinction is between mind and body. In Samkhya, however, it is between the self (purusha) and matter, and the latter incorporates what Westerners would normally refer to as "mind".

=== Nyaya ===
:''Main article: Nyaya''

The Nyaya school of philosophical speculation is based on a text called the Nyaya Sutra. It was written by Aksapada Gautama at an indeterminate date, but probably in the second century BCE. The most important contribution made by this school is its methodology. This is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by most of the other Indian schools (orthodox or not), much in the same way that Western science and philosophy can be said to be largely based on Aristotelian logic.

But Nyaya is not merely logic for its own sake. Its followers believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to obtain release from suffering. They therefore took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and to distinguish these from mere false opinions. According to the Nyaya school, there are exactly four sources of knowledge (pramanas): perception, inference, comparison and testimony. Knowledge obtained through each of these can of course still be either valid or invalid, and the Nyaya scholars again went to great pains to identify, in each case, what it took to make knowledge valid, in the process coming up with a number of explanatory schemes. In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to contemporary Western analytical philosophy. An important later development in Nyaya is the system of Navya Nyaya (New Logic).

=== Vaisheshika ===

The Vaisheshika system, which was founded by the sage Kanada, postulates an atomic pluralism. In terms of this school of thought, all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a certain number of atoms.

Although the Vaishesika system developed independently from the Nyaya, the two eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only perception and inference as being such.

===Yoga ===

The [[Yoga]] system is generally considered to have arisen from the Samkhya philosophy. Its primary text is the [[Bhagavad Gita]], which explores the four primary systems. The sage [[Patanjali]] wrote an extremely influential text on Raja Yoga (or meditational) entitled the "Yoga Sutra". The most significant difference from Samkhya is that the Yoga school not only incorporates the concept of Ishvara (a personal God) into its metaphysical worldview, which the Samkhya does not, but also upholds Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate. This is because Ishvara is the only aspect of ''Purusha'' that has not become entangled with ''prakrti''. It also utilizes the [[Brahman]]/Atman terminology and concepts that are found in the [[Upanishads]], thus breaking from the Samkhya school by adopting concepts of Vedantic [[monoism]]. The Yoga system lays down elaborate prescriptions for gradually gaining physical and mental control and mastery over the "personal self", both body and mind, until one's consciousness has intensified sufficiently to allow for the awareness of one's "real Self" (the soul, or Atman), as distinct from one's feelings, thoughts and actions. Realization of the goal of Yoga is known as moksha, [[nirvana]] and samadhi. They all speak to the realization of the Atman as being nothing other than the infinite [[Brahman]]. See the articles on [[Yoga]] and [[History of Yoga]] for an in-depth discussion.

=== Purva Mimamsa ===

The main objective of the Purva ("earlier") Mimamsa school was to establish the authority of the [[Vedas]]. Consequently this school's most valuable contribution to [[Hinduism]] was its formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its adherents believed that revelation must be proved by reasoning, that it should not be accepted blindly as dogma. In keeping with this belief, they laid great emphasis on dharma, which they understood as the performance of Vedic rituals. The Mimamsa accepted the logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, but felt that these paid insufficient attention to right action. They believed that the other schools of thought, which pursued '''moksha''' (release) as their ultimate aim, were not completely free from desire and selfishness. In Hinduism, we are all illuminated under the light of god. When we have moksha, we believe that we become closer to god. According to the Mimamsa, the very striving for liberation stemmed from a selfish desire to be free. Only by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas could one attain salvation (rather than liberation). At a later stage, however, the Mimamsa school changed its views in this regard and began to teach the doctrines of God and mukti (freedom). Its adherents then advocated the release or escape from the soul from its constraints through what was known as jnana (enlightened activity). While Mimamsa does not receive much scholarly attention these days, its influence can be felt in the life of the practising Hindu. All Hindu ritual, ceremony and religious law is influenced by it.

=== Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta ===

The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school, more commonly known as the [[Vedanta]], concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the [[Upanishads]] rather than on the ritualistic injunctions of the Brahmanas.

While the traditional Vedic 'karma kanda' (ritualistic components of religion) continued to be practiced as meditative and propitiatory rites gearing society (through the [[Brahmins]]) to Self-knowledge, more jnaan (knowledge) centered understandings began to emerge, mystical streams of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity rather than more practical aspects of religion like rituals and rites. The more abstruse [[Vedanta]] (meaning literally the end of the Vedas) is the essence of the Vedas, encapsulated in the Upanishads which are commentaries on the four original books (Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva). Vedantic thought drew on Vedic cosmology, hymns and philosophy. The first Upanishad, the Brihadaranyaka, appeared as far back as three and a half thousand years ago. While thirteen or so Upanishads are accepted as principal, over a hundred exist. The most influential Vedantic thought, [[advaita vedanta]], based on the Upanishads, considers the consciousness of the Self - Jeevatma - to be continuous with and indistinguishable from the consciousness of the Supreme or Brahman - Paramatma.

The Upanishads are acknowledged by scholars and philosophers from both East and West, from Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi and Aurobindo Ghosh to Erwin Schrödinger, Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson, to be beautiful in poetry and superlatively rich in philosophy. But they do not form a unified syatem or set of writings.

The [[upanishads]] are traditionally classed into twelve or thirteen primary Upanishads, perhaps the oldest of which is the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, believed by some to have been first written down as early as c.1500 BCE.

The cryptic way in which the aphorisms of the Vedanta sutras are presented leaves the door wide open for a multitude of interpretations. This led to a proliferation of Vedanta schools. Each of these interprets the texts in its own way and has produced its own series of sub-commentaries - all claiming to be faithful to the original.

===='''Monism: Advaita Vedanta''' ====

[[Advaita Vedanta]] is probably the best known of all Vedanta schools. Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a "monistic" (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness. Its first great consolidator was Shankaracharya (788-820). Continuing the line of thought of some of the Upanishadic teachers, and also that of his own teacher Gaudapada, Shankara expounded the doctrine of Advaita - a nondualistic reality. By analysing the three states of experience (waking, dreaming and deep sleep) he exposed the relative nature of the world and established the supreme truth of the Advaita: the non-dual reality of Brahman in which atman (the individual soul) and [[brahman]] (the ultimate reality expressed in the trimurti) are identified absolutely. His theories were controversial from the start and some of his contemporaries accused him of teaching [[Buddhism]] while pretending to be a Hindu. However, many more see Adi Sankara as drawing from monist concepts ingrained in texts pre-dating the [[Buddha]], like the more abstuse sections of the Vedas, as well as the older Upanishads, several of which are conservatively and thus reliably dated as far back as 1000 BCE, if not 1500 BCE.

Subsequent Vedantins debated whether the reality of Brahman was ''saguna'' (with attributes) or ''nirguna'' (without attributes). Belief in the concept of [[Saguna Brahman]] gave rise to a proliferation of devotional attitudes and more widespread worship of [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]]. [[Advaita Vedanta]] is strictly grounded in a belief that the ultimate truth is [[Nirguna Brahman]]. The Vishistadvaita and [[Dvaita]] schools believed in an ultimately saguna Brahman.

===='''Qualified Monism: Vishistadvaita]'''====

Ramanuja (1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of ''Saguna Brahman'', the concept of [[Brahman]] or God, the ultimate power, having a definate form, name and attributes: he saw [[Vishnu|Sriman Narayana]] as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate reality had three aspects: Ishvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.

===='''Dualism: [[Dvaita]]'''====

Like Ramanuja, Madhva (1218 - 1317) identified God with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic and is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic).

== Synthesis: Acintya Bheda-Abheda Vedanta ==

[[Chaitanya]] (1486-1534), a devotee of Krishna, proposed a synthesis between the monist and dualist philosophies by stating that the soul is equally distinct (bheda) and non-distinct (abheda) from [[God]], whom he identified as [[Krishna]], and that this, although unthinkable (acintya), is experiencable in devotion.

== See also==
*[[Swami Vivekananda]]
*[[Sri Aurobindo]]

==External links==
*[http://www.philo.demon.co.uk/Darshana.htm Indian philosophy pages]
*[http://www.connect.net/ron/indianphilosophy.html An essay]
*[http://www.orientalia.org/dic2.html Encyclopedic Dictionary of Indian Philosophy]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/1863/index.html Indian Religion and Philosophy]
*[http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/hindu_trinity.php Hindu Trinity]
*[http://www.spiritual-happiness.com/scriptures.html Spiritual Sanskrit Scriptures] In Streaming [[RealPlayer]]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy Hindu philosophy]''. Retrieved on July 19. 2005.

[Category:Hinduism]

Nirguna Brahman

2005-07-19T10:37:28Z

Fr. Zabed:

{{stub}}

'''Nirguna Brahman''', is [[God]] without form in [[Hinduism]]. Even that definition is limiting. Nirguna Brahman is God, which is beyond human comprehension. For human eyes, Nirguna Brahman is viewed as [[Saguna Brahman]], or God with personal attributes, and is commonly worshipped as [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]] by Hindus.

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirguna_Brahman Nirguna Brahman]''. Retrieved on July 19. 2005.

Saguna Brahman

2005-07-19T10:36:24Z

Fr. Zabed:

{{stub}}

'''Saguna Brahma''', in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] philosophy, is [[God]] or Supreme Consciousness with [[guna]]s (qualities or attributes). This in contrast with [[Nirguna Brahman]], which is the Supreme Consciousness beyond the gunas. The universe or creation comes about by the imbalance of the three gunas ([[sattva]], [[rajas]] and [[tamas]]) within the cosmic mind of Brahman. Nirguna Brahman is beyond mind but Saguna Brahman can said to be floating within the infinite Nirguna Brahma like an iceberg in an endless ocean of water.

Saguna Brahman is sometimes equated with [[Ishvara]], in turn often equated with a certain personal manifestation of God in human form (such as [[Shiva]] or [[Krishna]].

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saguna_Brahman Saguna Brahman]''. Retrieved on July 19. 2005.

Hindu philosophy

2005-07-19T10:33:57Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Hindu philosophy''' (one of the main divisions of Indian philosophy) is traditionally seen through the prism of six different systems (called '''darshanas''' in Sanskrit) that are listed here and makes up the main belief systems of [[Hinduism]]. The characteristic of this philosophy is to consider ''being'' (consciousness) together with the other issues and is part of the thought systems of the vast [[Vedas|Vedic]] [[religion]] of [[Hinduism]].

== Hindu Philosophy: The Six Main Schools of Thought ==

The philosophic and theological diversity of [[Hinduism]] is limitless, being nurtured by the fundamentally eclectic and liberal universalism that is its defining characteristic. It is impossible to summarize all the schools of thought and inquiry produced or harboured over the millenia by the peoples of [[India]]. Some of the more ancient and long-established philosophies are elaborated upon below.

=== Samkhya ===

[[Samkhya]] is widely regarded to be the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism. Its philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two eternal realities: purusha and prakrti. The purushas (souls) are many, conscious and devoid of all qualities. They are the silent spectators of prakrti (matter or nature), which is composed of three gunas (dispositions): satva, rajas and tamas (steadiness, activity and dullness). When the equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed, the world order evolves. This disturbance is due to the proximity of Purusha and prakrti. Liberation (kaivalya), then, consists of the realisation of the difference between the two.

This was a dualistic philosophy. But there are differences between the Samkhya and Western forms of dualism. In the West, the fundamental distinction is between mind and body. In Samkhya, however, it is between the self (purusha) and matter, and the latter incorporates what Westerners would normally refer to as "mind".

=== Nyaya ===
:''Main article: Nyaya''

The Nyaya school of philosophical speculation is based on a text called the Nyaya Sutra. It was written by Aksapada Gautama at an indeterminate date, but probably in the second century BCE. The most important contribution made by this school is its methodology. This is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by most of the other Indian schools (orthodox or not), much in the same way that Western science and philosophy can be said to be largely based on Aristotelian logic.

But Nyaya is not merely logic for its own sake. Its followers believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to obtain release from suffering. They therefore took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and to distinguish these from mere false opinions. According to the Nyaya school, there are exactly four sources of knowledge (pramanas): perception, inference, comparison and testimony. Knowledge obtained through each of these can of course still be either valid or invalid, and the Nyaya scholars again went to great pains to identify, in each case, what it took to make knowledge valid, in the process coming up with a number of explanatory schemes. In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to contemporary Western analytical philosophy. An important later development in Nyaya is the system of Navya Nyaya (New Logic).

=== Vaisheshika ===

The Vaisheshika system, which was founded by the sage Kanada, postulates an atomic pluralism. In terms of this school of thought, all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a certain number of atoms.

Although the Vaishesika system developed independently from the Nyaya, the two eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only perception and inference as being such.

===Yoga ===

The [[Yoga]] system is generally considered to have arisen from the Samkhya philosophy. Its primary text is the [[Bhagavad Gita]], which explores the four primary systems. The sage [[Patanjali]] wrote an extremely influential text on Raja Yoga (or meditational) entitled the "Yoga Sutra". The most significant difference from Samkhya is that the Yoga school not only incorporates the concept of Ishvara (a personal God) into its metaphysical worldview, which the Samkhya does not, but also upholds Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate. This is because Ishvara is the only aspect of ''Purusha'' that has not become entangled with ''prakrti''. It also utilizes the [[Brahman]]/Atman terminology and concepts that are found in the [[Upanishads]], thus breaking from the Samkhya school by adopting concepts of Vedantic [[monoism]]. The Yoga system lays down elaborate prescriptions for gradually gaining physical and mental control and mastery over the "personal self", both body and mind, until one's consciousness has intensified sufficiently to allow for the awareness of one's "real Self" (the soul, or Atman), as distinct from one's feelings, thoughts and actions. Realization of the goal of Yoga is known as moksha, [[nirvana]] and samadhi. They all speak to the realization of the Atman as being nothing other than the infinite [[Brahman]]. See the articles on [[Yoga]] and [[History of Yoga]] for an in-depth discussion.

=== Purva Mimamsa ===

The main objective of the Purva ("earlier") Mimamsa school was to establish the authority of the [[Vedas]]. Consequently this school's most valuable contribution to [[Hinduism]] was its formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its adherents believed that revelation must be proved by reasoning, that it should not be accepted blindly as dogma. In keeping with this belief, they laid great emphasis on dharma, which they understood as the performance of Vedic rituals. The Mimamsa accepted the logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, but felt that these paid insufficient attention to right action. They believed that the other schools of thought, which pursued '''moksha''' (release) as their ultimate aim, were not completely free from desire and selfishness. In Hinduism, we are all illuminated under the light of god. When we have moksha, we believe that we become closer to god. According to the Mimamsa, the very striving for liberation stemmed from a selfish desire to be free. Only by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas could one attain salvation (rather than liberation). At a later stage, however, the Mimamsa school changed its views in this regard and began to teach the doctrines of God and mukti (freedom). Its adherents then advocated the release or escape from the soul from its constraints through what was known as jnana (enlightened activity). While Mimamsa does not receive much scholarly attention these days, its influence can be felt in the life of the practising Hindu. All Hindu ritual, ceremony and religious law is influenced by it.

=== Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta ===

The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school, more commonly known as the [[Vedanta]], concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the [[Upanishads]] rather than on the ritualistic injunctions of the Brahmanas.

While the traditional Vedic 'karma kanda' (ritualistic components of religion) continued to be practiced as meditative and propitiatory rites gearing society (through the [[Brahmins]]) to Self-knowledge, more jnaan (knowledge) centered understandings began to emerge, mystical streams of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity rather than more practical aspects of religion like rituals and rites. The more abstruse [[Vedanta]] (meaning literally the end of the Vedas) is the essence of the Vedas, encapsulated in the Upanishads which are commentaries on the four original books (Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva). Vedantic thought drew on Vedic cosmology, hymns and philosophy. The first Upanishad, the Brihadaranyaka, appeared as far back as three and a half thousand years ago. While thirteen or so Upanishads are accepted as principal, over a hundred exist. The most influential Vedantic thought, [[advaita vedanta]], based on the Upanishads, considers the consciousness of the Self - Jeevatma - to be continuous with and indistinguishable from the consciousness of the Supreme or Brahman - Paramatma.

The Upanishads are acknowledged by scholars and philosophers from both East and West, from Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi and Aurobindo Ghosh to Erwin Schrödinger, Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson, to be beautiful in poetry and superlatively rich in philosophy. But they do not form a unified syatem or set of writings.

The [[upanishads]] are traditionally classed into twelve or thirteen primary Upanishads, perhaps the oldest of which is the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, believed by some to have been first written down as early as c.1500 BCE.

The cryptic way in which the aphorisms of the Vedanta sutras are presented leaves the door wide open for a multitude of interpretations. This led to a proliferation of Vedanta schools. Each of these interprets the texts in its own way and has produced its own series of sub-commentaries - all claiming to be faithful to the original.

===='''Monism: Advaita Vedanta''' ====

[[Advaita Vedanta]] is probably the best known of all Vedanta schools. Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a "monistic" (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness. Its first great consolidator was Shankaracharya (788-820). Continuing the line of thought of some of the Upanishadic teachers, and also that of his own teacher Gaudapada, Shankara expounded the doctrine of Advaita - a nondualistic reality. By analysing the three states of experience (waking, dreaming and deep sleep) he exposed the relative nature of the world and established the supreme truth of the Advaita: the non-dual reality of Brahman in which atman (the individual soul) and [[brahman]] (the ultimate reality expressed in the trimurti) are identified absolutely. His theories were controversial from the start and some of his contemporaries accused him of teaching [[Buddhism]] while pretending to be a Hindu. However, many more see Adi Sankara as drawing from monist concepts ingrained in texts pre-dating the [[Buddha]], like the more abstuse sections of the Vedas, as well as the older Upanishads, several of which are conservatively and thus reliably dated as far back as 1000 BCE, if not 1500 BCE.

Subsequent Vedantins debated whether the reality of Brahman was ''saguna'' (with attributes) or ''nirguna'' (without attributes). Belief in the concept of [[Saguna Brahman]] gave rise to a proliferation of devotional attitudes and more widespread worship of [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]]. [[Advaita Vedanta]] is strictly grounded in a belief that the ultimate truth is [[Nirguna Brahman]]. The Vishistadvaita and [[Dvaita]] schools believed in an ultimately saguna Brahman.

===='''Qualified Monism: Vishistadvaita]'''====

Ramanuja (1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of ''Saguna Brahman'', the concept of [[Brahman]] or God, the ultimate power, having a definate form, name and attributes: he saw [[Vishnu|Sriman Narayana]] as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate reality had three aspects: Ishvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.

===='''Dualism: [[Dvaita]]'''====

Like Ramanuja, Madhva (1218 - 1317) identified God with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic and is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic).

== Synthesis: Acintya Bheda-Abheda Vedanta ==

[[Chaitanya]] (1486-1534), a devotee of Krishna, proposed a synthesis between the monist and dualist philosophies by stating that the soul is equally distinct (bheda) and non-distinct (abheda) from [[God]], whom he identified as [[Krishna]], and that this, although unthinkable (acintya), is experiencable in devotion.

== See also==
*[[Swami Vivekananda]]
*[[Sri Aurobindo]]

==External links==
*[http://www.philo.demon.co.uk/Darshana.htm Indian philosophy pages]
*[http://www.connect.net/ron/indianphilosophy.html An essay]
*[http://www.orientalia.org/dic2.html Encyclopedic Dictionary of Indian Philosophy]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/1863/index.html Indian Religion and Philosophy]
*[http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/hindu_trinity.php Hindu Trinity]
*[http://www.spiritual-happiness.com/scriptures.html Spiritual Sanskrit Scriptures] In Streaming [[RealPlayer]]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_philosophy Hindu philosophy]''. Retrieved on July 19. 2005.

Hindu philosophy

2005-07-19T10:32:48Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Hindu philosophy''' (one of the main divisions of Indian philosophy) is traditionally seen through the prism of six different systems (called '''darshanas''' in Sanskrit) that are listed here and makes up the main belief systems of [[Hinduism]]. The characteristic of this philosophy is to consider ''being'' (consciousness) together with the other issues and is part of the thought systems of the vast [[Vedas|Vedic]] [[religion]] of [[Hinduism]]. =

== Hindu Philosophy: The Six Main Schools of Thought ==

The philosophic and theological diversity of [[Hinduism]] is limitless, being nurtured by the fundamentally eclectic and liberal universalism that is its defining characteristic. It is impossible to summarize all the schools of thought and inquiry produced or harboured over the millenia by the peoples of [[India]]. Some of the more ancient and long-established philosophies are elaborated upon below.

=== Samkhya ===

[[Samkhya]] is widely regarded to be the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism. Its philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two eternal realities: purusha and prakrti. The purushas (souls) are many, conscious and devoid of all qualities. They are the silent spectators of prakrti (matter or nature), which is composed of three gunas (dispositions): satva, rajas and tamas (steadiness, activity and dullness). When the equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed, the world order evolves. This disturbance is due to the proximity of Purusha and prakrti. Liberation (kaivalya), then, consists of the realisation of the difference between the two.

This was a dualistic philosophy. But there are differences between the Samkhya and Western forms of dualism. In the West, the fundamental distinction is between mind and body. In Samkhya, however, it is between the self (purusha) and matter, and the latter incorporates what Westerners would normally refer to as "mind".

=== Nyaya ===
:''Main article: Nyaya''

The Nyaya school of philosophical speculation is based on a text called the Nyaya Sutra. It was written by Aksapada Gautama at an indeterminate date, but probably in the second century BCE. The most important contribution made by this school is its methodology. This is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by most of the other Indian schools (orthodox or not), much in the same way that Western science and philosophy can be said to be largely based on Aristotelian logic.

But Nyaya is not merely logic for its own sake. Its followers believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to obtain release from suffering. They therefore took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and to distinguish these from mere false opinions. According to the Nyaya school, there are exactly four sources of knowledge (pramanas): perception, inference, comparison and testimony. Knowledge obtained through each of these can of course still be either valid or invalid, and the Nyaya scholars again went to great pains to identify, in each case, what it took to make knowledge valid, in the process coming up with a number of explanatory schemes. In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to contemporary Western analytical philosophy. An important later development in Nyaya is the system of Navya Nyaya (New Logic).

=== Vaisheshika ===

The Vaisheshika system, which was founded by the sage Kanada, postulates an atomic pluralism. In terms of this school of thought, all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a certain number of atoms.

Although the Vaishesika system developed independently from the Nyaya, the two eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only perception and inference as being such.

===Yoga ===

The [[Yoga]] system is generally considered to have arisen from the Samkhya philosophy. Its primary text is the [[Bhagavad Gita]], which explores the four primary systems. The sage [[Patanjali]] wrote an extremely influential text on Raja Yoga (or meditational) entitled the "Yoga Sutra". The most significant difference from Samkhya is that the Yoga school not only incorporates the concept of Ishvara (a personal God) into its metaphysical worldview, which the Samkhya does not, but also upholds Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate. This is because Ishvara is the only aspect of ''Purusha'' that has not become entangled with ''prakrti''. It also utilizes the [[Brahman]]/Atman terminology and concepts that are found in the [[Upanishads]], thus breaking from the Samkhya school by adopting concepts of Vedantic [[monoism]]. The Yoga system lays down elaborate prescriptions for gradually gaining physical and mental control and mastery over the "personal self", both body and mind, until one's consciousness has intensified sufficiently to allow for the awareness of one's "real Self" (the soul, or Atman), as distinct from one's feelings, thoughts and actions. Realization of the goal of Yoga is known as moksha, [[nirvana]] and samadhi. They all speak to the realization of the Atman as being nothing other than the infinite [[Brahman]]. See the articles on [[Yoga]] and [[History of Yoga]] for an in-depth discussion.

=== Purva Mimamsa ===

The main objective of the Purva ("earlier") Mimamsa school was to establish the authority of the [[Vedas]]. Consequently this school's most valuable contribution to [[Hinduism]] was its formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its adherents believed that revelation must be proved by reasoning, that it should not be accepted blindly as dogma. In keeping with this belief, they laid great emphasis on dharma, which they understood as the performance of Vedic rituals. The Mimamsa accepted the logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, but felt that these paid insufficient attention to right action. They believed that the other schools of thought, which pursued '''moksha''' (release) as their ultimate aim, were not completely free from desire and selfishness. In Hinduism, we are all illuminated under the light of god. When we have moksha, we believe that we become closer to god. According to the Mimamsa, the very striving for liberation stemmed from a selfish desire to be free. Only by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas could one attain salvation (rather than liberation). At a later stage, however, the Mimamsa school changed its views in this regard and began to teach the doctrines of God and mukti (freedom). Its adherents then advocated the release or escape from the soul from its constraints through what was known as jnana (enlightened activity). While Mimamsa does not receive much scholarly attention these days, its influence can be felt in the life of the practising Hindu. All Hindu ritual, ceremony and religious law is influenced by it.

=== Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta ===

The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school, more commonly known as the [[Vedanta]], concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the [[Upanishads]] rather than on the ritualistic injunctions of the Brahmanas.

While the traditional Vedic 'karma kanda' (ritualistic components of religion) continued to be practiced as meditative and propitiatory rites gearing society (through the [[Brahmins]]) to Self-knowledge, more jnaan (knowledge) centered understandings began to emerge, mystical streams of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity rather than more practical aspects of religion like rituals and rites. The more abstruse [[Vedanta]] (meaning literally the end of the Vedas) is the essence of the Vedas, encapsulated in the Upanishads which are commentaries on the four original books (Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva). Vedantic thought drew on Vedic cosmology, hymns and philosophy. The first Upanishad, the Brihadaranyaka, appeared as far back as three and a half thousand years ago. While thirteen or so Upanishads are accepted as principal, over a hundred exist. The most influential Vedantic thought, [[advaita vedanta]], based on the Upanishads, considers the consciousness of the Self - Jeevatma - to be continuous with and indistinguishable from the consciousness of the Supreme or Brahman - Paramatma.

The Upanishads are acknowledged by scholars and philosophers from both East and West, from Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi and Aurobindo Ghosh to Erwin Schrödinger, Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson, to be beautiful in poetry and superlatively rich in philosophy. But they do not form a unified syatem or set of writings.

The [[upanishads]] are traditionally classed into twelve or thirteen primary Upanishads, perhaps the oldest of which is the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, believed by some to have been first written down as early as c.1500 BCE.

The cryptic way in which the aphorisms of the Vedanta sutras are presented leaves the door wide open for a multitude of interpretations. This led to a proliferation of Vedanta schools. Each of these interprets the texts in its own way and has produced its own series of sub-commentaries - all claiming to be faithful to the original.

===='''Monism: Advaita Vedanta''' ====

[[Advaita Vedanta]] is probably the best known of all Vedanta schools. Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a "monistic" (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness. Its first great consolidator was Shankaracharya (788-820). Continuing the line of thought of some of the Upanishadic teachers, and also that of his own teacher Gaudapada, Shankara expounded the doctrine of Advaita - a nondualistic reality. By analysing the three states of experience (waking, dreaming and deep sleep) he exposed the relative nature of the world and established the supreme truth of the Advaita: the non-dual reality of Brahman in which atman (the individual soul) and [[brahman]] (the ultimate reality expressed in the trimurti) are identified absolutely. His theories were controversial from the start and some of his contemporaries accused him of teaching [[Buddhism]] while pretending to be a Hindu. However, many more see Adi Sankara as drawing from monist concepts ingrained in texts pre-dating the [[Buddha]], like the more abstuse sections of the Vedas, as well as the older Upanishads, several of which are conservatively and thus reliably dated as far back as 1000 BCE, if not 1500 BCE.

Subsequent Vedantins debated whether the reality of Brahman was ''saguna'' (with attributes) or ''nirguna'' (without attributes). Belief in the concept of [[Saguna Brahman]] gave rise to a proliferation of devotional attitudes and more widespread worship of [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]]. [[Advaita Vedanta]] is strictly grounded in a belief that the ultimate truth is [[Nirguna Brahman]]. The Vishistadvaita and [[Dvaita]] schools believed in an ultimately saguna Brahman.

===='''Qualified Monism: Vishistadvaita]'''====

Ramanuja (1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of ''Saguna Brahman'', the concept of [[Brahman]] or God, the ultimate power, having a definate form, name and attributes: he saw [[Vishnu|Sriman Narayana]] as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate reality had three aspects: Ishvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.

===='''Dualism: [[Dvaita]]'''====

Like Ramanuja, Madhva (1218 - 1317) identified God with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic and is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic).

== Synthesis: Acintya Bheda-Abheda Vedanta ==

[[Chaitanya]] (1486-1534), a devotee of Krishna, proposed a synthesis between the monist and dualist philosophies by stating that the soul is equally distinct (bheda) and non-distinct (abheda) from [[God]], whom he identified as [[Krishna]], and that this, although unthinkable (acintya), is experiencable in devotion.

== See also==
*[[Swami Vivekananda]]
*[[Sri Aurobindo]]

==External links==
*[http://www.philo.demon.co.uk/Darshana.htm Indian philosophy pages]
*[http://www.connect.net/ron/indianphilosophy.html An essay]
*[http://www.orientalia.org/dic2.html Encyclopedic Dictionary of Indian Philosophy]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/1863/index.html Indian Religion and Philosophy]
*[http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/hindu_trinity.php Hindu Trinity]
*[http://www.spiritual-happiness.com/scriptures.html Spiritual Sanskrit Scriptures] In Streaming [[RealPlayer]]

Hindu philosophy

2005-07-19T10:31:37Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Hindu philosophy''' (one of the main divisions of Indian philosophy) is traditionally seen through the prism of six different systems (called '''darshanas''' in Sanskrit) that are listed here and makes up the main belief systems of [[Hinduism]]. The characteristic of this philosophy is to consider ''being'' (consciousness) together with the other issues and is part of the thought systems of the vast [[Vedas|Vedic]] [[religion]] of [[Hinduism]]. =

== Hindu Philosophy: The Six Main Schools of Thought ==

The philosophic and theological diversity of [[Hinduism]] is limitless, being nurtured by the fundamentally eclectic and liberal universalism that is its defining characteristic. It is impossible to summarize all the schools of thought and inquiry produced or harboured over the millenia by the peoples of [[India]]. Some of the more ancient and long-established philosophies are elaborated upon below.

=== Samkhya ===

[[Samkhya]] is widely regarded to be the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism. Its philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two eternal realities: purusha and prakrti. The purushas (souls) are many, conscious and devoid of all qualities. They are the silent spectators of prakrti (matter or nature), which is composed of three gunas (dispositions): satva, rajas and tamas (steadiness, activity and dullness). When the equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed, the world order evolves. This disturbance is due to the proximity of Purusha and prakrti. Liberation (kaivalya), then, consists of the realisation of the difference between the two.

This was a dualistic philosophy. But there are differences between the Samkhya and Western forms of dualism. In the West, the fundamental distinction is between mind and body. In Samkhya, however, it is between the self (purusha) and matter, and the latter incorporates what Westerners would normally refer to as "mind".

=== Nyaya ===
:''Main article: Nyaya''

The Nyaya school of philosophical speculation is based on a text called the Nyaya Sutra. It was written by Aksapada Gautama at an indeterminate date, but probably in the second century BCE. The most important contribution made by this school is its methodology. This is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by most of the other Indian schools (orthodox or not), much in the same way that Western science and philosophy can be said to be largely based on Aristotelian logic.

But Nyaya is not merely logic for its own sake. Its followers believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to obtain release from suffering. They therefore took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and to distinguish these from mere false opinions. According to the Nyaya school, there are exactly four sources of knowledge (pramanas): perception, inference, comparison and testimony. Knowledge obtained through each of these can of course still be either valid or invalid, and the Nyaya scholars again went to great pains to identify, in each case, what it took to make knowledge valid, in the process coming up with a number of explanatory schemes. In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to contemporary Western analytical philosophy. An important later development in Nyaya is the system of Navya Nyaya (New Logic).

=== Vaisheshika ===

The Vaisheshika system, which was founded by the sage Kanada, postulates an atomic pluralism. In terms of this school of thought, all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a certain number of atoms.

Although the Vaishesika system developed independently from the Nyaya, the two eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only perception and inference as being such.

===Yoga ===

The [[Yoga]] system is generally considered to have arisen from the Samkhya philosophy. Its primary text is the [[Bhagavad Gita]], which explores the four primary systems. The sage [[Patanjali]] wrote an extremely influential text on Raja Yoga (or meditational) entitled the "Yoga Sutra". The most significant difference from Samkhya is that the Yoga school not only incorporates the concept of Ishvara (a personal God) into its metaphysical worldview, which the Samkhya does not, but also upholds Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate. This is because Ishvara is the only aspect of ''Purusha'' that has not become entangled with ''prakrti''. It also utilizes the [[Brahman]]/Atman terminology and concepts that are found in the [[Upanishads]], thus breaking from the Samkhya school by adopting concepts of Vedantic [[monoism]]. The Yoga system lays down elaborate prescriptions for gradually gaining physical and mental control and mastery over the "personal self", both body and mind, until one's consciousness has intensified sufficiently to allow for the awareness of one's "real Self" (the soul, or Atman), as distinct from one's feelings, thoughts and actions. Realization of the goal of Yoga is known as moksha, [[nirvana]] and samadhi. They all speak to the realization of the Atman as being nothing other than the infinite [[Brahman]]. See the articles on [[Yoga]] and [[History of Yoga]] for an in-depth discussion.

=== Purva Mimamsa ===

The main objective of the Purva ("earlier") Mimamsa school was to establish the authority of the [[Vedas]]. Consequently this school's most valuable contribution to [[Hinduism]] was its formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its adherents believed that revelation must be proved by reasoning, that it should not be accepted blindly as dogma. In keeping with this belief, they laid great emphasis on dharma, which they understood as the performance of Vedic rituals. The Mimamsa accepted the logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, but felt that these paid insufficient attention to right action. They believed that the other schools of thought, which pursued '''moksha''' (release) as their ultimate aim, were not completely free from desire and selfishness. In Hinduism, we are all illuminated under the light of god. When we have moksha, we believe that we become closer to god. According to the Mimamsa, the very striving for liberation stemmed from a selfish desire to be free. Only by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas could one attain salvation (rather than liberation). At a later stage, however, the Mimamsa school changed its views in this regard and began to teach the doctrines of God and mukti (freedom). Its adherents then advocated the release or escape from the soul from its constraints through what was known as jnana (enlightened activity). While Mimamsa does not receive much scholarly attention these days, its influence can be felt in the life of the practising Hindu. All Hindu ritual, ceremony and religious law is influenced by it.

=== Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta ===

The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school, more commonly known as the [[Vedanta]], concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the [[Upanishads]] rather than on the ritualistic injunctions of the Brahmanas.

While the traditional Vedic 'karma kanda' (ritualistic components of religion) continued to be practiced as meditative and propitiatory rites gearing society (through the [[Brahmins]]) to Self-knowledge, more jnaan (knowledge) centered understandings began to emerge, mystical streams of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity rather than more practical aspects of religion like rituals and rites. The more abstruse [[Vedanta]] (meaning literally the end of the Vedas) is the essence of the Vedas, encapsulated in the Upanishads which are commentaries on the four original books (Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva). Vedantic thought drew on Vedic cosmology, hymns and philosophy. The first Upanishad, the Brihadaranyaka, appeared as far back as three and a half thousand years ago. While thirteen or so Upanishads are accepted as principal, over a hundred exist. The most influential Vedantic thought, [[advaita vedanta]], based on the Upanishads, considers the consciousness of the Self - Jeevatma - to be continuous with and indistinguishable from the consciousness of the Supreme or Brahman - Paramatma.

The Upanishads are acknowledged by scholars and philosophers from both East and West, from Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi and Aurobindo Ghosh to Erwin Schrödinger, Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson, to be beautiful in poetry and superlatively rich in philosophy. But they do not form a unified syatem or set of writings.

The [[upanishads]] are traditionally classed into twelve or thirteen primary Upanishads, perhaps the oldest of which is the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, believed by some to have been first written down as early as c.1500 BCE.

The cryptic way in which the aphorisms of the Vedanta sutras are presented leaves the door wide open for a multitude of interpretations. This led to a proliferation of Vedanta schools. Each of these interprets the texts in its own way and has produced its own series of sub-commentaries - all claiming to be faithful to the original.

===='''Monism: Advaita Vedanta''' ====

[[Advaita Vedanta]] is probably the best known of all Vedanta schools. Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a "monistic" (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness. Its first great consolidator was [[Adi_Sankara|Shankaracharya]] (788-820). Continuing the line of thought of some of the Upanishadic teachers, and also that of his own teacher Gaudapada, Shankara expounded the doctrine of Advaita - a nondualistic reality. By analysing the three states of experience (waking, dreaming and deep sleep) he exposed the relative nature of the world and established the supreme truth of the Advaita: the non-dual reality of Brahman in which atman (the individual soul) and [[brahman]] (the ultimate reality expressed in the trimurti) are identified absolutely. His theories were controversial from the start and some of his contemporaries accused him of teaching [[Buddhism]] while pretending to be a Hindu. However, many more see Adi Sankara as drawing from monist concepts ingrained in texts pre-dating the [[Buddha]], like the more abstuse sections of the Vedas, as well as the older Upanishads, several of which are conservatively and thus reliably dated as far back as 1000 BCE, if not 1500 BCE.

Subsequent Vedantins debated whether the reality of Brahman was ''saguna'' (with attributes) or ''nirguna'' (without attributes). Belief in the concept of [[Saguna Brahman]] gave rise to a proliferation of devotional attitudes and more widespread worship of [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]]. [[Advaita Vedanta]] is strictly grounded in a belief that the ultimate truth is [[Nirguna Brahman]]. The [[Vishistadvaita]] and [[Dvaita]] schools believed in an ultimately saguna Brahman.

===='''Qualified Monism: [[Vishistadvaita]]'''====

Ramanuja (1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of ''Saguna Brahman'', the concept of [[Brahman]] or God, the ultimate power, having a definate form, name and attributes: he saw [[Vishnu|Sriman Narayana]] as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate reality had three aspects: Ishvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.

===='''Dualism: [[Dvaita]]'''====

Like Ramanuja, Madhva (1218 - 1317) identified God with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic and is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic).

== Synthesis: Acintya Bheda-Abheda Vedanta ==

[[Chaitanya]] (1486-1534), a devotee of Krishna, proposed a synthesis between the monist and dualist philosophies by stating that the soul is equally distinct (bheda) and non-distinct (abheda) from [[God]], whom he identified as [[Krishna]], and that this, although unthinkable (acintya), is experiencable in devotion.

== See also==
*[[Swami Vivekananda]]
*[[Sri Aurobindo]]

==External links==
*[http://www.philo.demon.co.uk/Darshana.htm Indian philosophy pages]
*[http://www.connect.net/ron/indianphilosophy.html An essay]
*[http://www.orientalia.org/dic2.html Encyclopedic Dictionary of Indian Philosophy]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/1863/index.html Indian Religion and Philosophy]
*[http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/hindu_trinity.php Hindu Trinity]
*[http://www.spiritual-happiness.com/scriptures.html Spiritual Sanskrit Scriptures] In Streaming [[RealPlayer]]

Hindu philosophy

2005-07-19T10:31:24Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Hindu philosophy''' (one of the main divisions of Indian philosophy) is traditionally seen through the prism of six different systems (called '''darshanas''' in Sanskrit) that are listed here and makes up the main belief systems of [[Hinduism]]. The characteristic of this philosophy is to consider ''being'' (consciousness) together with the other issues and is part of the thought systems of the vast [[Veda|Vedic]] [[religion]] of [[Hinduism]]. =

== Hindu Philosophy: The Six Main Schools of Thought ==

The philosophic and theological diversity of [[Hinduism]] is limitless, being nurtured by the fundamentally eclectic and liberal universalism that is its defining characteristic. It is impossible to summarize all the schools of thought and inquiry produced or harboured over the millenia by the peoples of [[India]]. Some of the more ancient and long-established philosophies are elaborated upon below.

=== Samkhya ===

[[Samkhya]] is widely regarded to be the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in Hinduism. Its philosophy regards the universe as consisting of two eternal realities: purusha and prakrti. The purushas (souls) are many, conscious and devoid of all qualities. They are the silent spectators of prakrti (matter or nature), which is composed of three gunas (dispositions): satva, rajas and tamas (steadiness, activity and dullness). When the equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed, the world order evolves. This disturbance is due to the proximity of Purusha and prakrti. Liberation (kaivalya), then, consists of the realisation of the difference between the two.

This was a dualistic philosophy. But there are differences between the Samkhya and Western forms of dualism. In the West, the fundamental distinction is between mind and body. In Samkhya, however, it is between the self (purusha) and matter, and the latter incorporates what Westerners would normally refer to as "mind".

=== Nyaya ===
:''Main article: Nyaya''

The Nyaya school of philosophical speculation is based on a text called the Nyaya Sutra. It was written by Aksapada Gautama at an indeterminate date, but probably in the second century BCE. The most important contribution made by this school is its methodology. This is based on a system of logic that has subsequently been adopted by most of the other Indian schools (orthodox or not), much in the same way that Western science and philosophy can be said to be largely based on Aristotelian logic.

But Nyaya is not merely logic for its own sake. Its followers believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to obtain release from suffering. They therefore took great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and to distinguish these from mere false opinions. According to the Nyaya school, there are exactly four sources of knowledge (pramanas): perception, inference, comparison and testimony. Knowledge obtained through each of these can of course still be either valid or invalid, and the Nyaya scholars again went to great pains to identify, in each case, what it took to make knowledge valid, in the process coming up with a number of explanatory schemes. In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to contemporary Western analytical philosophy. An important later development in Nyaya is the system of Navya Nyaya (New Logic).

=== Vaisheshika ===

The Vaisheshika system, which was founded by the sage Kanada, postulates an atomic pluralism. In terms of this school of thought, all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a certain number of atoms.

Although the Vaishesika system developed independently from the Nyaya, the two eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaishesika school differed from the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the Vaishesika accepted only perception and inference as being such.

===Yoga ===

The [[Yoga]] system is generally considered to have arisen from the Samkhya philosophy. Its primary text is the [[Bhagavad Gita]], which explores the four primary systems. The sage [[Patanjali]] wrote an extremely influential text on Raja Yoga (or meditational) entitled the "Yoga Sutra". The most significant difference from Samkhya is that the Yoga school not only incorporates the concept of Ishvara (a personal God) into its metaphysical worldview, which the Samkhya does not, but also upholds Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate. This is because Ishvara is the only aspect of ''Purusha'' that has not become entangled with ''prakrti''. It also utilizes the [[Brahman]]/Atman terminology and concepts that are found in the [[Upanishads]], thus breaking from the Samkhya school by adopting concepts of Vedantic [[monoism]]. The Yoga system lays down elaborate prescriptions for gradually gaining physical and mental control and mastery over the "personal self", both body and mind, until one's consciousness has intensified sufficiently to allow for the awareness of one's "real Self" (the soul, or Atman), as distinct from one's feelings, thoughts and actions. Realization of the goal of Yoga is known as moksha, [[nirvana]] and samadhi. They all speak to the realization of the Atman as being nothing other than the infinite [[Brahman]]. See the articles on [[Yoga]] and [[History of Yoga]] for an in-depth discussion.

=== Purva Mimamsa ===

The main objective of the Purva ("earlier") Mimamsa school was to establish the authority of the [[Vedas]]. Consequently this school's most valuable contribution to [[Hinduism]] was its formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its adherents believed that revelation must be proved by reasoning, that it should not be accepted blindly as dogma. In keeping with this belief, they laid great emphasis on dharma, which they understood as the performance of Vedic rituals. The Mimamsa accepted the logical and philosophical teachings of the other schools, but felt that these paid insufficient attention to right action. They believed that the other schools of thought, which pursued '''moksha''' (release) as their ultimate aim, were not completely free from desire and selfishness. In Hinduism, we are all illuminated under the light of god. When we have moksha, we believe that we become closer to god. According to the Mimamsa, the very striving for liberation stemmed from a selfish desire to be free. Only by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas could one attain salvation (rather than liberation). At a later stage, however, the Mimamsa school changed its views in this regard and began to teach the doctrines of God and mukti (freedom). Its adherents then advocated the release or escape from the soul from its constraints through what was known as jnana (enlightened activity). While Mimamsa does not receive much scholarly attention these days, its influence can be felt in the life of the practising Hindu. All Hindu ritual, ceremony and religious law is influenced by it.

=== Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta ===

The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school, more commonly known as the [[Vedanta]], concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the [[Upanishads]] rather than on the ritualistic injunctions of the Brahmanas.

While the traditional Vedic 'karma kanda' (ritualistic components of religion) continued to be practiced as meditative and propitiatory rites gearing society (through the [[Brahmins]]) to Self-knowledge, more jnaan (knowledge) centered understandings began to emerge, mystical streams of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity rather than more practical aspects of religion like rituals and rites. The more abstruse [[Vedanta]] (meaning literally the end of the Vedas) is the essence of the Vedas, encapsulated in the Upanishads which are commentaries on the four original books (Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva). Vedantic thought drew on Vedic cosmology, hymns and philosophy. The first Upanishad, the Brihadaranyaka, appeared as far back as three and a half thousand years ago. While thirteen or so Upanishads are accepted as principal, over a hundred exist. The most influential Vedantic thought, [[advaita vedanta]], based on the Upanishads, considers the consciousness of the Self - Jeevatma - to be continuous with and indistinguishable from the consciousness of the Supreme or Brahman - Paramatma.

The Upanishads are acknowledged by scholars and philosophers from both East and West, from Rabindranath Tagore, Mahatma Gandhi and Aurobindo Ghosh to Erwin Schrödinger, Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson, to be beautiful in poetry and superlatively rich in philosophy. But they do not form a unified syatem or set of writings.

The [[upanishads]] are traditionally classed into twelve or thirteen primary Upanishads, perhaps the oldest of which is the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, believed by some to have been first written down as early as c.1500 BCE.

The cryptic way in which the aphorisms of the Vedanta sutras are presented leaves the door wide open for a multitude of interpretations. This led to a proliferation of Vedanta schools. Each of these interprets the texts in its own way and has produced its own series of sub-commentaries - all claiming to be faithful to the original.

===='''Monism: Advaita Vedanta''' ====

[[Advaita Vedanta]] is probably the best known of all Vedanta schools. Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a "monistic" (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness. Its first great consolidator was [[Adi_Sankara|Shankaracharya]] (788-820). Continuing the line of thought of some of the Upanishadic teachers, and also that of his own teacher Gaudapada, Shankara expounded the doctrine of Advaita - a nondualistic reality. By analysing the three states of experience (waking, dreaming and deep sleep) he exposed the relative nature of the world and established the supreme truth of the Advaita: the non-dual reality of Brahman in which atman (the individual soul) and [[brahman]] (the ultimate reality expressed in the trimurti) are identified absolutely. His theories were controversial from the start and some of his contemporaries accused him of teaching [[Buddhism]] while pretending to be a Hindu. However, many more see Adi Sankara as drawing from monist concepts ingrained in texts pre-dating the [[Buddha]], like the more abstuse sections of the Vedas, as well as the older Upanishads, several of which are conservatively and thus reliably dated as far back as 1000 BCE, if not 1500 BCE.

Subsequent Vedantins debated whether the reality of Brahman was ''saguna'' (with attributes) or ''nirguna'' (without attributes). Belief in the concept of [[Saguna Brahman]] gave rise to a proliferation of devotional attitudes and more widespread worship of [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]]. [[Advaita Vedanta]] is strictly grounded in a belief that the ultimate truth is [[Nirguna Brahman]]. The [[Vishistadvaita]] and [[Dvaita]] schools believed in an ultimately saguna Brahman.

===='''Qualified Monism: [[Vishistadvaita]]'''====

Ramanuja (1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of ''Saguna Brahman'', the concept of [[Brahman]] or God, the ultimate power, having a definate form, name and attributes: he saw [[Vishnu|Sriman Narayana]] as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate reality had three aspects: Ishvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.

===='''Dualism: [[Dvaita]]'''====

Like Ramanuja, Madhva (1218 - 1317) identified God with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic and is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic).

== Synthesis: Acintya Bheda-Abheda Vedanta ==

[[Chaitanya]] (1486-1534), a devotee of Krishna, proposed a synthesis between the monist and dualist philosophies by stating that the soul is equally distinct (bheda) and non-distinct (abheda) from [[God]], whom he identified as [[Krishna]], and that this, although unthinkable (acintya), is experiencable in devotion.

== See also==
*[[Swami Vivekananda]]
*[[Sri Aurobindo]]

==External links==
*[http://www.philo.demon.co.uk/Darshana.htm Indian philosophy pages]
*[http://www.connect.net/ron/indianphilosophy.html An essay]
*[http://www.orientalia.org/dic2.html Encyclopedic Dictionary of Indian Philosophy]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/1863/index.html Indian Religion and Philosophy]
*[http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/hindu_trinity.php Hindu Trinity]
*[http://www.spiritual-happiness.com/scriptures.html Spiritual Sanskrit Scriptures] In Streaming [[RealPlayer]]

Hindu mythology

2005-07-19T10:26:08Z

Fr. Zabed:

The term "'''Hindu mythology'''" refers collectively to a large body of Indian literature (essentially, the [[myth]]ology of [[Hinduism]]) that detail the lives and times of legendary personalities, deities and [[avatar|divine incarnations]] on earth interspersed with often large sections of philosophical and ethical discourse. Though they are often classified as 'Hindu' or 'Indian' 'mythology,' the label does not capture the centrality of religious and spiritual affiliations of the texts that ring true today for most Hindus. They are replete with long philosophical discourses and are often seen as sourcebooks for Hindu ethics and practice. A parallel would be to term the Old Testament 'Christian mythology'.

The most important of these are a voluminous group of works known as the ''puranas'', of which there are eighteen. The two great Hindu Epics, the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', are other major works of Hindu mythology.

The epics ''Mahabharata'' and ''Ramayana'' are very much [[religion|religious]] scriptures. Their stories are deeply embedded in [[Hindu philosophy]] and serve as parables and sources of devotion for [[Hinduism|Hindus]] into the present day.

==See also==
* [[Hindu deities]]
* [[Hinduism]]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_mythology Hindu mythology]''. Retrieved on July 19. 2005.

Hindu mythology

2005-07-19T10:25:52Z

Fr. Zabed:

Deva

2005-07-19T10:23:35Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Deva''' is the [[Sanskrit]] word for "god, [[deity]]". In [[Hindu mythology]], the devas are opposed to the demonic [[Asura]]s.

==Origins==
The word is from PIE ''*deivos'', originally an adjective meaning "celestial" or "shining", a vrddhi derivative from a root ''*div'' "to shine", especially of the daylit sky. The feminine is [[Devi]] "[[goddess]]" (PIE ''*deivih2''). The cognate word in Avestan] is '''daeva'''. In [[Zoroastrianism]] and the [Avesta]], the ''ahuras'' are supreme, while the ''daevas'' are [[demon]]ic. This has been forwarded as an argument of a religious split between early Indo-Aryans and [[Iranians]], but it should be noted that in early [[Vedic religion]], some Asuras are still worshipped, so that it seems more likely that the [[Indo-Iranians]], and probably already the [[Proto-Indo-European]]s (the Germanic [[Aesir]] are cognate to the Asuras) worshipped two classes of gods, without any moral dichotomy.
Not to be confused is the PIE proper name ''*Dyeus'' which while from the same root, may originally have referred to the sky itself, and hence to "Father Sky", the chief god of the Indo-European pantheon, continued in Sanskrit Dyaus, Germanic [[Tiwaz]].

==Vedic religion==
The main deva addressed in the [[Rigveda]] is [[Indra]]. [[Agni]] (fire) and [[Soma]] represent modes of [[sacrifice]], but personified are also seen as devas. All gods taken together are worshipped as the [[Vishvadevas]].

==Classical Hinduism==
Nature devas are responsible for things as fire, air, rain and trees. Higher devas control much more intricate tasks governing the functioning of the cosmos and the evolution of creation. '''Mahadevas''', such as Lord [[Ganesa]], have such tremenduous tasks under their diligence that they are sometimes called themselves [[gods]] under the Supreme One God.

They are functionally equivalent of angels who serve God in Judaeo-Christian tradition. There are also many other lesser celestial beings in Hinduism such as Gandharvas or celestial musicians.

[[Vayu]] or the Lord of the wind is an example of an important [[deva]]. Also, Death is personified as the deva [[Yama]].

Devas and Asuras are also cited in traditional [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] cosmology. For information on this subject, see six lower realms.

Devas, in [[Hinduism]], are celestial beings that control forces of nature such as fire, air, wind, etc. They are not to be confused with [[God]] or His personal form, [[Saguna Brahman]] which is visualized as [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]]. God or Brahman is the ultimate controller.
A famous verse from the Katha Upanishad states:
“From fear of Him the wind blows; from fear of Him the sun rises; from fear of Him [[Agni]] and [[Indra]] and Death, the fifth, run."

According to [[Vaishnavites]], another verse that confers the Devas' subordinate status comes from the [[Vishnu sahasranama]], whose concluding verses state: "The [[Rishis]] (great sages), ancestors, the Devas, the great elements, in fact, all things moving and unmoving constituting this universe, have originated from [[Narayana]]." (i.e.,[[Vishnu]]), expressing that in [[Vaishnavism]], the Devas are subordinate to Vishnu or God.

==See also==
* [[Hindu deities]]
* [[Mahadeva]]
* [[Vishvadevas]]

== External links==
* http://www.dvaita.org/shaastra/gita/gita_sara/gs-007.html (only one God in Hinduism, #56 and see Shri Krishna is the supreme God; #57.)
* http://www.shaivam.org/shpvediy.htm
* http://www.godshiva.com/hipfaq.htm (see info on devas and one Supreme God.)
* http://members.tripod.com/~saran/shpvediy.htm

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devas Deva (Hinduism)]''. Retrieved on July 19. 2005.

Vishnu

2005-07-19T10:19:46Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Vishnu''' (Hindi: (विष्‍णु) is a form of God, whom [[Hinduism|Hindus]] pray to. For Vaishnavites, He is the only Ultimate Reality or God. In Trimurti belief, He is the second aspect of God in the Trimurti (also called the Hindu Trinity), along with [[Brahma]] and [[Shiva]]. Vishnu means, "The All-Pervading One," another name for the one Supreme Being. Known as the Preserver, He is most famously identified with his avatars, or incarnations of God, most especially [[Krishna]] and [[Rama]].

* Followers of Vaishnavism, unlike Smartas, do not believe that Vishnu is one of many personal forms of God or Saguna Brahman but believe Him to be the only Ultimate Reality (i.e., Brahman) exclusively. A Smarta, on the other hand, would consider Vishnu and Shiva to be the same but different aspects of the same Supreme Being.
* Unlike Shaivism, the other denomination of Hinduism, Vaishnavism believes that God incarnates periodically for the establishment of righteousness, protection of good and destruction of evil.
* Smartas who follow [[Advaita]] philosophy, believe that aspects of God such as Vishnu or Shiva are personal attributes of the impersonal Brahman, God without attributes. All Hindus however, recognize that Vishnu is not limited to personal characteristics as typically depicted in the displayed image and is beyond any personal characteristics and can transcend all attributes.(This view is similar to the view of God in Semitic religions such as [[Islam]] or [[Judaism]].) However, the Semitic religions hold that God has no personal characteristics. Hindus, on the other hand, believe that God can transcend all personal characteristics yet can also have personal characteristics for the grace of the embodied human devotee. Personal characteristics are way for the devotee to focus on God.
* Hindus believe that if we can hear the voice of God similar to how Judaeo-Christian religions believe that God communicates, then it is not neccessarily wrong to view a form of God so long as it is recognized that God is not limited to a particular form.
* Hindus also worship Vishnu as an abstract form (i.e., God without form) as a saligrama. Use of the saligrama is similar as the [[lingam]] is used for Shiva.
* The term "Hindu god" should not be equated with Vishnu and is confused with Deva.
* [[Deva]]s, or demigods, are celestial beings similar to angels as discussed in Judaeo-Christian traditions.

==Theological attributes and more==

Vishnu is the all-inclusive deity, known as purusha or mahä Purusha, Paramätma [Supreme Soul] Antaryämi [In-dweller] and He is the Shèshin [Totality] in whom all souls are contained. He is Bhagavat or Bhagavan where bhâga is Divine Glory,

Vishnu possesses six such divine glories, namely,

* '''Jñäna (Omniscient)'''; defined as the power to know about all beings simultaneously;
* '''Aishvarya (Sovereignty)''',which persist in unchallenged rule over all;
* '''Shakti (Energy)''', or power, which is the capacity to make the impossible possible;
* '''Bala (Strength)''', which is the capacity to support everything by His will and without any fatigue;
* '''Virya (Vigour)''', or valour which indicates the power to retain immateriality as the Supreme Spirit or Being in spite of being the material cause of mutable creations;
* '''Tèjas (Splendour)''', which expresses His self-sufficiency and the capacity to overpower everything by His spiritual effulgence.; cited from Bhakti Schools of Vedanta, by Swami Tapasyananda.

However, the actual number of auspicious qualities of Vishnu are countless, with the above-mentioned six qualities being the most important. Other important qualities attributed to God are Gambhirya (inestimatable grandeur), Audarya (generosity), and Karunya (compassion.)

==Relations with other Deities==

Vishnu's consort is [[Lakshmi]], the Goddess of wealth. Shakti is the samvit (the primary intelligence) of God, while the other five attributes emerge from this samvid and hence Shakti is God's ahamata (personality and activity) or God's Power personified. Thus this Shakti of God is personified in mythological lore and is called Shri or Lakshmi, and She is said to manifest herself in, 1) kriyäshakti, (Creative Activity) and 2) bhütishakti (Creation) of God. Hence Vishnu cannot part with His own personality or creativity i.e., ahamta, which in its feminine form is called Sri or Lakshmi. He therefore needs his consort Goddess Lakshmi to be with Him always, untouched by any. Thus Lakshmi has to accompany Vishnu in all His incarnations.

His mount is [[Garuda]], the eagle. He, along with the rishis, helped broker the truce between [[Vritra]] and [[Indra]].

==Depiction==

* Vishnu is usually depicted as a four-armed humanoid with blue skin, often sitting or resting on a lotus flower. He also has a shapeless, omnipresent form called Hari.
* Note that while Vishnu is commonly portrayed with human features, Swami Tapasyananda, in his book, Bhakti Schools of Vedanta, reminds readers that Vishnu pervades everything and is not anthropomorphic. Attributing anthrompormorphic characteristics to Vishnu is a common misconception held by non-Hindus. Vishnu has no particular material form but can manifest in any form, and is a center of all force, power, will, auspiciousness, goodness, beauty, grace, responsiveness, etc.

==Worship==

* Vishnu is the Supreme God of Vaishnavism, or Vishnu monotheism.
* It is believed that He manifested Himself as a human being in ten Avatars. He is frequently worshipped in the form of these avatars.

It is not clearly known when or how the worship of Vishnu began. In the [[Vedas]], and the information on Aryan beliefs, Vishnu is listed as a lesser god, strongly associated with Indra. However, Shukavak N. Dasa, a Vaishnavite scholar, in reference, [http://www.sanskrit.org/Ramanuja/Ramanuja&vaishna.html], has commentated that Srivaishnavites would note that the praise of Indra and other devas in the Vedas, are not intended for the particular deity, but for the Supreme Being, Vishnu, who is the inner soul for such deity. They further note that the various deities addressed in the hymns are simply different forms of this one Supreme Being. Additionally, he mentions Vaishnavites' citation of Rig Veda 1.22.20, for the supremacy of Vishnu, which states, "As the blazing sun pervades the entire sky like an eye fixed in the heavens, so the divine seers eternally perceive that supreme abode of Vishnu." Also, the foreword of P. Sankaranarayan's translation of Vishnu sahasranama, Bhavan's Book University, cites Rig Veda V.I.15b.3, for the importance of chanting Vishnu's name by stating, "O ye who wish to gain realization of the supreme truth, utter the name of Vishnu at least once in the steadfast faith that it will lead you to such realization." Nevertheless, it was only later in Hindu history that Vishnu became a member of the Trimurti and hence is one of the most important forms of God in contemporary Hinduism.

* Om Namo Narayana, a mantra
* Purusha Sukta, a Vedic hymn said to describe Vishnu.
* Vishnu sahasranama, a hymn describing the 1000 names of Vishnu.

==Names==

Vishnu has a number of names, collected in the Vishnu sahasranama ("Vishnu's thousand names"), which occurs in the Mahabharata. In Vishnu Sahasranama, however, Vishnu is praised as the Supreme God.

The names are generally derived from the anantakalyanagunas (infinite auspicious attributes) of the Lord. Fourteen of Vishnu's names have a special status:

* Acyutah
* Ananta
* Kesava
* Narayana
* Madhava
* Govinda
* Vishnu
* Madhusudanah
* Trivikrama
* Vamana
* Aridhara
* Hrsikeshah
* Padmanabha
* Damodara

Other important names:

* Gopala
* Janardanah
* Vasudeva
* Anantasayana
* Sriman
* Srinivasa (specifically referring to his form in the temple at Tirupati).

Dhanvantari is an avatar of Vishnu. One of the most famous Hindu saints, Shri Raghavendra Swami was a Vaishnavist monotheist.

==Theological beliefs and philosophy==

Major branches of Vaishnavism include [[Srivaishnavism]], (espoused by Ramanuja) who advocated Vishishtadvaita, [[Dvaita]] (espoused by Madhvacharya or Madhva and [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]] (espoused by Shri Chaityana).

The Hare Krishna movement or ISKCON adheres to Gaudiya Vaishnavism school.

==External links==
* http://www.vaishnava.com/aboutvaishnavism.htm
* [http://www.dvaita.org/docs/srv_faq.html Who is Vishnu? and the Nature of Him and other facts.]
* http://www.dvaita.org/shaastra/gita/gita_sara/gs-007.html
* http://www.srivaishnavan.com/srivaishnavan/servlet/section
* http://www.prapatti.com/index.html
* http://www.rudraksha-ratna.com/hindu_trinity.php
* [http://www.krishna.com/ Krishna.com] All about Krishna. Info, books, MP3s, images, radio. . .
* http://www.harekrishna.com/~ara/col/books/BG/tsem1.html
* [http://www.tdska.com/ Information about Krishna]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishnu Vishnu]''. Retrieved on 02/23/2005

Lingam

2005-07-17T13:48:20Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Lingam''' or '''Linga''' is the Sanskrit word for sign. As well as being used as a symbol for the worship of the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] God [[Shiva]], the term is also used for a representation of the male sexual organ. A '''stone lingam''' is a naturally occurring ovular stone, also associated with Hinduism. The term is not used in the [[Vedas]] but used frequently in the [[Mahabharata]].
The linga (sign) is a symbol of [[Shiva]], just as the cross ([[logos]]) is a symbol of [[Jesus|Christ]]. The linga is not a symbol of the penis, but instead represents the fertility of Nature.

Since God is without form, the linga represents Shiva or God. Many educated Hindus consider it wrong to worship images of [[Shiva]] himself.
Other occurances of this practise occur in Arabia with the [[Black Stone]] of [[Mecca]], the [[Omphalos]] of the Greeks, and the [[Ben Ben]] stones of [[Heliopolis]], Egypt.

See also [[yoni]].

==References==
* Schumacher, Stephan and Woerner, Gert. ''The encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and religion, Buddhism, Taoism, Zen, Hinduism''. Boston: Shambala, 1994. ISBN 0-87773-980-3.
* Wikipedia (2004). [http://www.wikipedia.org/Lingam Lingam]. Retrieved Oct. 18, 2004.

==External link==
* [http://www.dlshq.org/download/hinduismbk.htm#_VPID_110 The Siva-Linga: A Symbol Which Points To An Inference]
* http://www.shaivam.org/shplinga.htm

[[Category:Hinduism]]

Lingam

2005-07-17T13:41:20Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Lingam''' or '''Linga''' is the Sanskrit word for sign. As well as being used as a symbol for the worship of the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] God [[Shiva]], the term is also used for a representation of the male sexual organ. A '''stone lingam''' is a naturally occurring ovular stone, also associated with Hinduism. The term is not used in the [[Veda]]s but used frequently in the [[Mahabharata]].
The linga (sign) is a symbol of [[Shiva]], just as the cross ([[logos]]) is a symbol of [[Jesus|Christ]]. The linga is not a symbol of the [[penis]], but instead represents the fertility of Nature.

Since God is without form, the linga represents Shiva or God. Many educated Hindus consider it wrong to worship images of [[Shiva]] himself.
Other occurances of this practise occur in Arabia with the [[Black Stone]] of [[Mecca]], the [[Omphalos]] of the Greeks, and the [[Ben Ben]] stones of [[Heliopolis]], Egypt.

See also [[yoni]].

==References==
* Schumacher, Stephan and Woerner, Gert. ''The encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and religion, Buddhism, Taoism, Zen, Hinduism''. Boston: Shambala, 1994. ISBN 0-87773-980-3.
* Wikipedia (2004). [http://www.wikipedia.org/Lingam Lingam]. Retrieved Oct. 18, 2004.

==External link==
* [http://www.dlshq.org/download/hinduismbk.htm#_VPID_110 The Siva-Linga: A Symbol Which Points To An Inference]
* http://www.shaivam.org/shplinga.htm

[[Category:Hinduism]]

Sadhu

2005-07-17T10:37:03Z

Fr. Zabed:

{{stub}}

'''Sadhu''' is a [[Wikipedia:Sanskrit|Sanskrit]] term that originated in the [[Vedas|Vedic]]/[[Hindu]] [[Dharma]], otherwise called [[Hinduism]]. It is a common term in India for a renounced ascetic or [[yoga|yogi]] who has given up pursuit of the first three Hindu goals of life: [[kama]] (pleasure), [[artha]] (wealth and power) and even [[dharma]] (duty), solely dedicated to achieving [[moksha]] (liberation) through meditation and contemplation of God.

==References==

* Wikipedia (2004). [http://www.wikipedia.org/Sadhu Sadhu]. Retrieved Oct. 18, 2004.

[[Category:Hindu terms]]
[[Category:Tantric terms]]

Guna

2005-07-17T10:36:35Z

Fr. Zabed:

{{stub}}

[[Vedas|Vedic]] philosophy describes three '''gunas''' (loosely translated, "tendencies" or "mental states"):

; [[Sattva]] : balance, order, purity
; [[Rajas]] : overactivity, turmoil
; [[Tamas]] : lethargy, entropy

These states are also used in [[Ayurveda]], a [[Hindu]] system of [[holism|holistic]] medicine, to assess conditions and diets.

These terms are also used in Indian [[alchemy]]. Their equivalents in western alchemy are:

:Sattva: [[Mercury]]
:Rajas: [[Sulphur]]
:Tamas: [[Salt]]

==References==
* Wikipedia (2004). [http://www.wikipedia.org/Guna Guna]. Retrieved Oct. 19, 2004.

[[Category:Alchemical terms]]
[[Category:Hindu terms]]
[[Category:Tantric terms]]

Śaivism

2005-07-17T10:35:36Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Śaivism''' is a branch of [[Hinduism]] that worships [[Shiva]] as the Supreme [[God]]. Followers of Śaivism are called Śaivas or [[Saivite|Śaivite]]s.

Śaivism is a [[monotheistic]] faith. Śaivites believe that there is only one God, who simultaneously permeates all creation and exists beyond it, being both immanent and transcendent. The concept is in contrast with many semitic religious traditions, where God is seen as [[transcendent]] only. As all other [[Hindu]] denominations, Śaivism acknowledges the existence of many lower Gods under the Supreme One. These Gods are encompassed by Him, seen as either as manifestations of the Supreme Being or as powerful entities who are permeated by Him, as is all Creation. This type of Monotheism is called [[Panentheism]] or [[Monistic Theism]].

Śaivism is a very deep, devotional and mystical denomination of Hinduism. It is considered the oldest of the Hindu denominations, with a long lineage of sages and saints who have outlaid practices and paths aimed at self-realization and the ultimate goal of [[moksha]], liberation. As a very broad religion, Śaivism encompasses philosophical systems, devotional rituals, legends, mysticism and varied yogic practices. It has both [[monistic]] and [[dualistic]] traditions.

Śaivites believe God transcends form, and devotees often worship Śiva in the form of a [[lingam]], symbolizing all universe. God Śiva is also revered in Śaivism as the anthropomorphic manifestation of Śiva Nataraja.

Originated in India, Śaivism has appeal all over India and is particularly strong in South India (especially, Tamil Nadu) and the island of Sri Lanka. Some traditions credit the spreading of Śaivism into southern India by the great sage, [[Agastya]], who is said to brought Vedic traditions as well as the Tamil language.

There can be found almost innumerable Śaivite temples and shrines, with many shrines accompanied as well by [[murtis]] dedicated to [[Ganesa]], Lord of the [[Gana]]s, followers of Śiva, and son of [[Shiva|Śiva]] and [[Shakti|Śakti]]. The twelve Jyotirling, or "golden Iingam", shrines are among the most esteemed in Śaivism.

Benares is considered the holiest city of all Hindus and Śaivites. A very revered Śaivite temple is the ancient Chidambaram, in South India.

One of the most famous hymns to Śiva in the [[Vedas]] is Śri Rudram.
The foremost Śaivite Vedic Mantra is [[Aum Namah Sivaya]].

Major theological schools of Śaivism include [[Kashmir Śaivism]], [[Saiva Siddhanta|Śaiva Siddhanta]] and [[Virasaivism]].

Probably the greatest author on the Śaiva religion writing in Sanskrit was Abhinavagupta, from Srinagar, Kashmir, c. 1000 CE.

Nayanars (or Nayanmars), saints from Southern India, were mostly responsible for development of Śaivism in the Middle Ages.

The presence of the different schools within hinduism should not be viewed as a schism. On the contrary, there is no animosity between the schools. Instead there is a healthy cross-pollination of ideas and logical debate that serves to refine each school's understanding of Hinduism. It is not uncommon, or disallowed, for an individual to follow one school but take the point of view of another school for a certain issue.

==External links==
* http://www.shaivam.org/index.html; specifically, http://www.shaivam.org/shp.htm
*http://members.aol.com/ukumbar/vsny/Detailed.htm#BM6
* http://sroutasaivasiddhanta.org/contact.htm
* http://www.geocities.com/shivaperuman/saivalinks.html
* [http://www.geocities.com/shivaperuman/ Śaivism from a dualistic perspective.]
* For a brief discussion about these branches and Hinduism in general, please see Swami Sivananda's excellent book, "All about Hinduism" at http://www.dlshq.org/download/hinduismbk.htm#_VPID_101
* For an excellent overview of Śaivism and basic beliefs, please see the following web site,
http://www.hinduism-today.com/archives/2003/10-12/44-49_four_sects.shtml.
* Additionally, please see excerpts from the book, "Dancing with Śiva" which discusses Hinduism and Śaivism in particular on the web site,
http://www.himalayanacademy.com/resources/books/dws/dws_table_of_contents.html
* http://www.geocities.com/nayanmars/Documents.html (link for obtaining PDF documents of prayers to Śiva.)
* [http://www.spiritual-happiness.com/scriptures.html Listen to Kashmir Śaivism Scriptures in streaming realplayer] Including Śiva Sutras, Spanda Karikas, and Pratyabhijnahrdayam
* [http://www.lingayat.com/festtemple/festitemple.asp Coverage of the famous preminent Śiva temples, the 12 Jyotirlingas and Panchabhoota Stalams.]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Aaivism Śaivism]''. Retrieved on July 17. 2005.

[[Category:Hinduism]]

Lingam

2005-07-17T10:35:06Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Lingam''' or '''Linga''' is the Sanskrit word for sign. As well as being used as a symbol for the worship of the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] God [[Shiva]], the term is also used for a representation of the [[male]] [[sexual organ]]. A '''stone lingam''' is a naturally occurring [[oval|ovular]] [[Rock (geology)|stone]], also associated with Hinduism. The term is not used in the [[Veda]]s but used frequently in the [[Mahabharata]].
The linga (sign) is a symbol of [[Shiva]], just as the cross ([[logos]]) is a symbol of [[Jesus|Christ]]. The linga is not a symbol of the [[penis]], but instead represents the fertility of Nature.

Since God is without form, the linga represents Shiva or God. Many educated Hindus consider it wrong to worship images of [[Shiva]] himself.
Other occurances of this practise occur in Arabia with the [[Black Stone]] of [[Mecca]], the [[Omphalos]] of the Greeks, and the [[Ben Ben]] stones of [[Heliopolis]], Egypt.

See also [[yoni]].

==References==
* Schumacher, Stephan and Woerner, Gert. ''The encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and religion, Buddhism, Taoism, Zen, Hinduism''. Boston: Shambala, 1994. ISBN 0-87773-980-3.
* Wikipedia (2004). [http://www.wikipedia.org/Lingam Lingam]. Retrieved Oct. 18, 2004.

==External link==
* [http://www.dlshq.org/download/hinduismbk.htm#_VPID_110 The Siva-Linga: A Symbol Which Points To An Inference]
* http://www.shaivam.org/shplinga.htm

[[Category:Hinduism]]

Śaivism

2005-07-17T10:33:42Z

Fr. Zabed:

Śaivism

2005-07-17T10:32:53Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Śaivism''' is a branch of [[Hinduism]] that worships [[Shiva]] as the Supreme [[God]]. Followers of Śaivism are called Śaivas or [[Saivite|Śaivite]]s.

Śaivism is a [[monotheistic]] faith. Śaivites believe that there is only one God, who simultaneously permeates all creation and exists beyond it, being both immanent and transcendent. The concept is in contrast with many semitic religious traditions, where God is seen as [[transcendent]] only. As all other [[Hindu]] denominations, Śaivism acknowledges the existence of many lower Gods under the Supreme One. These Gods are encompassed by Him, seen as either as manifestations of the Supreme Being or as powerful entities who are permeated by Him, as is all Creation. This type of Monotheism is called [[Panentheism]] or [[Monistic Theism]].

Śaivism is a very deep, devotional and mystical denomination of Hinduism. It is considered the oldest of the Hindu denominations, with a long lineage of sages and saints who have outlaid practices and paths aimed at self-realization and the ultimate goal of [[moksha]], liberation. As a very broad religion, Śaivism encompasses philosophical systems, devotional rituals, legends, mysticism and varied yogic practices. It has both [[monistic]] and [[dualistic]] traditions.

Śaivites believe God transcends form, and devotees often worship Śiva in the form of a [[lingam]], symbolizing all universe. God Śiva is also revered in Śaivism as the anthropomorphic manifestation of Śiva Nataraja.

Originated in India, Śaivism has appeal all over India and is particularly strong in South India (especially, Tamil Nadu) and the island of Sri Lanka. Some traditions credit the spreading of Śaivism into southern India by the great sage, [[Agastya]], who is said to brought Vedic traditions as well as the Tamil language.

There can be found almost innumerable Śaivite temples and shrines, with many shrines accompanied as well by [[murtis]] dedicated to [[Ganesa]], Lord of the [[Gana]]s, followers of Śiva, and son of [[Shiva|Śiva]] and [[Sakti|Śakti]]. The twelve [[Jyotirling]], or "golden Iingam", shrines are among the most esteemed in Śaivism.

Benares is considered the holiest city of all Hindus and Śaivites. A very revered Śaivite temple is the ancient Chidambaram, in South India.

One of the most famous hymns to Śiva in the [[Vedas]] is Śri Rudram.
The foremost Śaivite Vedic Mantra is [[Aum Namah Sivaya]].

Major theological schools of Śaivism include [[Kashmir Śaivism]], [[Saiva Siddhanta|Śaiva Siddhanta]] and [[Virasaivism]].

Probably the greatest author on the Śaiva religion writing in Sanskrit was Abhinavagupta, from Srinagar, Kashmir, c. 1000 CE.

Nayanars (or Nayanmars), saints from Southern India, were mostly responsible for development of Śaivism in the Middle Ages.

The presence of the different schools within hinduism should not be viewed as a schism. On the contrary, there is no animosity between the schools. Instead there is a healthy cross-pollination of ideas and logical debate that serves to refine each school's understanding of Hinduism. It is not uncommon, or disallowed, for an individual to follow one school but take the point of view of another school for a certain issue.

==External links==
* http://www.shaivam.org/index.html; specifically, http://www.shaivam.org/shp.htm
*http://members.aol.com/ukumbar/vsny/Detailed.htm#BM6
* http://sroutasaivasiddhanta.org/contact.htm
* http://www.geocities.com/shivaperuman/saivalinks.html
* [http://www.geocities.com/shivaperuman/ Śaivism from a dualistic perspective.]
* For a brief discussion about these branches and Hinduism in general, please see Swami Sivananda's excellent book, "All about Hinduism" at http://www.dlshq.org/download/hinduismbk.htm#_VPID_101
* For an excellent overview of Śaivism and basic beliefs, please see the following web site,
http://www.hinduism-today.com/archives/2003/10-12/44-49_four_sects.shtml.
* Additionally, please see excerpts from the book, "Dancing with Śiva" which discusses Hinduism and Śaivism in particular on the web site,
http://www.himalayanacademy.com/resources/books/dws/dws_table_of_contents.html
* http://www.geocities.com/nayanmars/Documents.html (link for obtaining PDF documents of prayers to Śiva.)
* [http://www.spiritual-happiness.com/scriptures.html Listen to Kashmir Śaivism Scriptures in streaming realplayer] Including Śiva Sutras, Spanda Karikas, and Pratyabhijnahrdayam
* [http://www.lingayat.com/festtemple/festitemple.asp Coverage of the famous preminent Śiva temples, the 12 Jyotirlingas and Panchabhoota Stalams.]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Aaivism Śaivism]''. Retrieved on July 17. 2005.

Shiva

2005-07-17T10:24:23Z

Fr. Zabed:

{{partial}}

'''Shiva''' (also spelt '''Śiva''', has many names) ([[Sanskrit]]:शिव) is form of God in Hinduism. He is the third form of God as God as the Destroyer, [[one of Trimurti]] (popularly called the "Hindu trinity"). In the trimurti, Shiva is the destroyer, while [[Brahma (god)|Brahma]] and [[Vishnu]] are creator and preserver, respectively. However, even though He represents destruction, He is viewed as a positive force (The Destroyer of Evil), since creation follows on from destruction. Some Hindus believe in a legend that he came from an [[Egg (biology)|egg]] laid by [[Ammavaru]] while others say he is ''anadi'' (without beginning/birth) and ''ananth'' (without end/death). Shivas worshippers are called [[Shaivaite]]s.

Some of His chief attributes are signified by His hundreds of names, such as ''Mahabaleshwar'' (Great God of Strength), ''Tryambakam'' (Three-Eyed One, i.e. All-Knowing), ''Mahakala'' (Great Time, i.e. Conqueror of Time), ''Nilkanth'' (The one with a Blue Throat) etc.

Shiva is the supreme [[God]] of [[Śaivism|Shaivism]], one of the two main branches of Hinduism today (the other being [[Vaishnavism]]). His abode is called [[Kailasa]]. His holy mount (called ''vahana'' in Sanskrit) is [[Nandi]], the Bull. His attendant is named [[Bhadra]]. He is usually represented by the ''Shiva linga'' (or [[lingam]]). He is generally represented in Hindu tradition as immersed in deep meditation, on Mount Kailash (Reputed to be the same as the Mount Kailash on the Tibet-India border, near Manasarovar Lake) in the [[Himalaya]], which is supposed to be his abode.

Shiva's consort is [[Devi]], God's energy or God as the Divine Mother who comes in many different forms, one of whom is [[Kali]], the goddess of death. [[Parvati]], a more pacific form of Devi is also popular. Shiva also married [[Sati]], daughter of [[Daksha]], who forbade the marriage. Sati disobeyed her father and Daksha held a [[Yagna]] (ritual sacrifice) to [[Vishnu]], but did not invite Shiva. In disgust, Sati sacrificed herself in the same fire Daksha used in his sacrifice. Shiva arrived at the scene, angry at the death of his wife, and killed many of the guests, as well as decapitating Daksha, though he later replaced his head with that of a [[goat]]. Shiva created the monster [[Virabhadra]] during his quarrel with Daksha, and he was the leader of Shiva's men who came to prevent Daksha from conducting the Yagna. According to legend (Shivpurana, Ramcharitmanas and other Hindu scriptures), this same Sati was reborn in the house of Himalaya (Who is almost certainly the mountain-range personified) and performed a great [[tapa]] (Sequence of austerities, culminating in sustained meditation on the object desired, which in this case, was the Lord Shiva.) This tapa caused Shiva to break his [[Samadhi]](State of deep, usually ecstatic meditation) and accept Parvati as his consort.

Shiva gave [[Parashurama]] his axe. Shiva's great bow is called ''Pinaak'' and thus he's also called ''Pinaaki''.

Shiva and Parvati are the parents of [[Karttikeya]] and [[Ganesha]], the [[elephant]]-headed God of wisdom. He acquired his head due to the actions of Shiva, who decapitated him because Ganesha refused to allow him to enter the bath while Parvati was bathing. Shiva had to give him the new head to placate his wife. In another version, Parvati showed the child off to Shiva, whose face burned his head to ashes, which Brahma told Shiva to replace with the first head he could find, an elephant. Karttikeya is a six-headed god (Thus called ''shadaanan'', the one with six heads. Sanskrit: ''shad'', six + ''aanan'', head.) and was conceived to kill the demon Tarakasura, who had proved invincible against other minor gods.

According to the foundational myth of Kalism, Kali came into existence when Shiva looked into himself; she is his mirror image.

Another version: She had gone out to kill demons but she went on a rampage. To stop her, Shiva went and lay down on the ground in front of her path. When she stepped on him, she looked down and realized that she had just stepped on Shiva. Feeling ashamed, she stuck out her tongue, and the rampage ended.

As '''[[Nataraja]]''', Shiva is the Lord of the Dance, and also symbolises the dance of the Universe/Nature, with all its delicately balanced heavenly bodies and natural laws which complement & balance each other. At times, he is also symbolized as doing his great dance of destruction, called ''Taandav'' (Pronounced with a soft 't' and a hard 'd'), at the time of ''pralaya'', or dissolution of the universe.

Some Hindus believe Shiva to be just one of many different forms of the universal [[Atman]], or [[Brahman]], a monistic entity to which all things, Shiva and everything else, are identical. Others see him as the one true God from whom all the other deities and principles are emanations, essentially a monotheistic understanding usually related to the [[bhakti]] sects of [[Shaivism]].

Although he is defined as a destroyer (Or rather recreator), Shiva, along with Vishnu, is considered the most benevolent God. One of his names is ''Aashutosh'', he who is pleased by small offerings, ''or'', he who gives a lot in return for a little.

Traditionally, unlike Vishnu, Shiva does not have any [[avatar]]s. However, several persons have been claimed as avatars of him, such as [[Shankara]]. Some people consider [[Hanuman]] to be an avatar of Shiva.

[[Nayanars]] (or Nayanmars), saints from Southern [[India]], were mostly responsible for development of Shiva sect in the Middle Ages.

The important Shaivite sects were Kashmir Shavaites from Northern India, Lingayats and [[Virasaivism|Virasaivas]] from Southern India. [[Saiva Siddhanta]] is a major Shaivite theory developed in [[South India|Southern India]].

==References==

* Wikipedia (2004). [http://www.wikipedia.org/Shiva Shiva]. Retrieved Oct. 18, 2004.

[[Category:Hindu Godforms]]
[[Category:Hindu Gods]]
[[Category:Tantra]]

Avatar

2005-07-17T10:23:09Z

Fr. Zabed:

In [[Hinduism]], an '''avatar''' is the incarnation (bodily manifestation) of an Immortal Being, or of the Ultimate Supreme Being. It derives from the Sanskrit word ''Avatāra'' which means "descent" and usually implies a deliberate descent into mortal realms for special purposes. The term is used primarily in Hinduism, for incarnations of [[Vishnu]] the preserver, whom many Hindus worship as [[God]]. The Dasavatara (see below) are ten particular "Great" incarnations of Vishnu.

Unlike [[Christianity]], and [[Śaivism|Shaivism]], Vaishnavism believes that God incarnates many times whenever there is a decline of righteousness and rise of evil (from the [[Bhagavad Gita]]). Lord [[Krishna]], avatar of Vishnu, famously said in the Gita: “For the protection of the good, for destruction of evil, and for the establishment of righteousness, I come into being from age to age.” (Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 4, verse 8.) Besides destruction of evil, it is important to note that an avatar also emerges in order to guide people towards the right path as the Lord easily can destroy evil from afar.

The word has also been used by extension by non-Hindus to refer to the incarnations of God in other religions, notably Christianity, for example [[Jesus]].

==Beliefs and significance==

The philosophy reflected in the Hindu epics is the doctrine of the avatar (incarnation of Vishnu or God as a human being). The two main avatars of Vishnu that appear in the epics are [[Rama]], the hero of the Ramayana, and [[Krishna]], the friend of the Pandavas in the Mahabharata. Unlike the superhuman devas (gods) of the Vedic Samhitas and the abstract Upanishadic concept of the all-pervading and formless [[Brahman]], the avatars in these epics are the human intermediaries between the Supreme Being represented as Saguna Brahman and mere mortals.

This doctrine has had a great impact on Hindu religious life, for to many it means that God has manifested Himself in a form that could be appreciated even by the least sophisticated. Rama and Krishna have remained prominent as beloved and adored manifestations of the Divine for thousands of years among Hindus. The Upanishadic concept of the underlying unity Brahman is revered by many to be the pinnacle of Hindu thought, and the concept of the avatars has purveyed this concept to the average Hindu as an expression of the manifestation of the Hindu's highest single divinity as an aid to humanity in dark times. The Hindu cycle of creation and destruction contains the essence of the idea of "avatars" and indeed relies on a final avatar of Vishnu, that of Kalki, as the final destructive force at the end of the world.

Rama and Krishna are not the only divine avatars in Hindu traditions. Hinduism includes the belief that the divine has taken human (and prior to the emergence of humankind, animal) forms here on earth many times. Little is known of any appearance as an avatar by Brahma or Shiva, but emanations of Vishnu have appeared a number of times. Some Hindus, based on the Ramayana, aver that Shiva incarnated once as the monkey-god [[Hanuman]]. Hanuman is more well-known as the son of Vayu, the deva of wind or his emanation. (Hanuman lived in a the jungle often called Vaanar, which means people who live in the jungle), and was one of the greatest devotees of Vishnu.

==The ten Avatars or Dasavatara==

The Maha Avatara (Great Avatars) of Vishnu are usually said to be ten and this is popularly known as the Dasavatara (dasa (dasha) in Sanskrit means ten):
#'''Matsya''', the fish
#'''Kurma''', the tortoise
#'''Varaha''', the boar
#'''Narasimha''', the Man-Lion (Nara = man, simha = lion)
#'''Vamana''', the Dwarf
#'''Parashurama''', Rama with the axe
#'''Rama''', Sri Ramachandra, the prince and king of Ayodhya
#'''Krishna''' (meaning dark or black; see also other meanings in the article about him.)
#'''Balarama''' (meaning one who holds a plough) or Buddha (see below)
#'''Kalki''' ("Eternity", or "time", or "The Destroyer of foulness"), who is expected to appear at the end of [[Kali Yuga]], the time period in which we currently exist, which will end in the year AD 428899.

==The 25 Avatars of the Puranas==

The literature of the Puranas list twenty-five avatara of Vishnu. A description of these is found in the Bhagavata Purana, Canto 1.

1) Catursana 2) Narada 3) Varaha 4) Matsya 5) Yajna 6) Nara-Narayana 7) Kapila 8) Dattatreya 9) Hayasirsa 10) Hamsa 11) Prsnigarbha 12) Rsabha 13) Prithu 14) Narasimha 15) Kurma 16) Dhanvantari 17) Mohini 18) Vamana 19) Parasurama 20) Raghavendra 21) Vyasa 22) Balarama 23) Krishna 24) Buddha 25) Kalki

==Types of avatars==
There are two type of avatars, primary avatars and secondary avatars. The most common type of primary avatars are called Svarupavatars, in which He manifests Himself in His Sat-cid-ananda form. In the primary avatars, such as Narasimha, Rama and Krishna, Vishnu directly descends. The Svarupavatars are subdivided into Amsarupavatars and Purna avatars. In Amsarupavatars, Vishnu is fully present in the person of the organism but He is manifest in the person only partially. Such avatars include the first five avatars from Matsya to Vamana except for Narasimha. Narasimha, Rama and Krishna, on the other hand, are types of Purna avatars, in which all the qualities and powers of the Lord are expressed. Narasimha and Rama are also additionally considered to be Lila avatars.

Other avatars are secondary avatars, such as Parashurama in which Vishnu does not directly descend. Parashurama is the only one of the traditional ten avatars that is not a direct descent of Vishnu. There are two types of secondary avatars: 1) Vishnu enters a soul with His form. (e.g., Parashurama) or 2) Vishnu does not enter a soul with His own form, but gives him extraordinary divine powers. (e.g., Veda Vyasa.) The secondary avatar class is sometimes called Saktyamsavatara.

Note that the secondary avatars are not worshipped. Only the direct, primary avatars are worshipped. However, in practice, the direct avatars that are worshipped today are the Purna avatars of Narasimha, Rama and Krishna. Krishna, among most Vaishnavites, is considered to be the highest kind of Purna avatar. However, followers of Chaitanya, in particular, ISKCON, and followers of Vallabhacharya differ philosophically from other Vaishnavite schools and consider Krishna to be the ultimate Godhead, and not simply as an avatar. In any event, all Hindus believe that there is no difference between worship of Vishnu and His avatars as it all leads to Him.

References are cited and given below.

A number of people in more recent times have claimed to be an avatar, for example Meher Baba. See list of other avatar claimants.

==The Ninth Avatar: Balarama or Buddha?==

Balarama is the ninth avatar according to Puranic tradition. However, with the increase in popularity of Buddhism in India, some time in the latter half of the first millennium A.D, a belief that Buddha is the ninth avatar gained prominence. (This is an example of the remarkable ability of Hinduism to assimilate other ideas and cultures; it ultimately contributed to the decline of Buddhism in India.) Buddha is therefore often referred to as Buddhadev ("Divine Buddha") by many Hindus. Buddhists, however, do not consider Buddha to be an avatar. A prominent contemporary Hindu thinker who considered Buddha an avatar was Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. On the other hand, followers of Dvaita, in particular, do not consider Buddha to be an avatar as he preached heterorthodox views (i.e., rejecting the Vedas, etc.) but instead accord Balarama the designation. Balarama, among the ten avatars, is different from other avatars as he is an incarnation of Vishnu's serpent Adi Sesha rather than of Vishnu himself.

==Symbolism==

Many claim that the ten avatars represent the development of life and of mankind. Matsya, the fish, represents life in water. Kurma, the tortoise, represents the next stage, amphibianism. The third animal, the boar Varaha, symbolizes life on land. Narasimha, the Man-Lion, symbolizes the commencement development of man. Vamana, the dwarf, symbolizes this incomplete development. Then, Parashurama, the forest-dweller, connotes completion of the basic development of humankind. The King Rama signals man's ability to govern nations. Krishna, an expert in the sixty-four fields of science and art according to Hinduism, indicates man's advancement to cultural concerns. Buddha, the Enlightened one, symbolizes the enlightenment and spiritual advancement of man. Note that the time of the avatars does not necessarily indicate much; kings ruled long before Rama and science was pursued long before Krishna. The avatars represent the order, and not the time, of these occurrences, according to certain Hindus. The animal development connotations bear striking resemblances to the theory of Evolution.

==List of other avatar claimants==

Apart from the ten traditional avatars of Hinduism some other persons claimed to be avatars or are believed to be avatars by their followers.

*'''[[Buddha]]''' accepted as an avatar by some Hindus, for example by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
*'''Chaitanya''' (1486 - 1534) is claimed to be an avatar of Krishna by the Gaudiya Vaishnavism denomination
*'''Shirdi Sai Baba''' (18??-1918) some of his followers believed him to be an avatar of Dattatreya
*'''Meher Baba''' (1894- 1969)
*'''Sathya Sai Baba''' (born circa 1926-1929) claims to be an avatar of Shiva, [[Shakti]] and Krishna
*'''Adi Da''' (1939- ) claims to be the Kalki avatar
*'''Samael Aun Weor''' (1917 - 1977) claimed as the real Kalki Avatar and Buddha Maitreya
*'''Narayani Amma''' claimed as the real Narayani Avatar]
*'''Mother Meera''' (1960-) claims to be an Avatar of Adipara- Shakti

==External links==
* [http://www.avatara.org/ The Avatar site]
* [http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Religions/Avatars/Vishnu.html Avatars (Incarnations or Descents) of Vishnu]
* [http://www.hindunet.org/avatars/index.htm Avatar of Lord Vishnu]
* [http://www.public.iastate.edu/~wsanford/darshan/hindu_deities/ten_avatars.html The Ten Avatars]
* [http://www.srivaishnavam.com/stotras/dasavatharam_meaning.htm Dasavatar discussion with meanings]
* [http://www.gaudiya.com/image/manifestations.gif Gaudiya Vaishnava types of avatar chart; similar beliefs with some modifications with Krishna as the Supreme Person.]

==References==
*Adapted from: Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avatar Avatar]''. Retrieved on June 11, 2005.
** [http://www.srivaishnavam.com/stotras/dasavatharam_meaning.htm#PARASURAMA Meaning of Parushama, an Avesha avatar.]
** [http://www.srivaishnavan.com/ans_iswara.html#67 Types of Avatars; answers to questions #67-70.]
** ''Bhakti Schools of Vedanta'', pg. 94, by Swami Tapasyananda, available at Sri Ramakrishna Math, Chennai. available at India web site: http://www.sriramakrishnamath.org and US site: http://www.vedanta.com.
[[Category:Religion]][[Category:Hinduism]]

Polytheism

2005-07-17T10:22:13Z

Fr. Zabed:

{{thelema}}
'''Polytheism''' is belief in, or worship of, multiple gods or divinities. The word comes from the Greek words ''poly+theoi,'' literally "many gods." Most ancient religions were polytheistic, holding to pantheons of traditional deities, often accumulated over centuries of cultural interchange and experience. The belief in many gods does not preclude the belief in an all- powerful all-knowing supreme being. Present-day polytheistic religions include Hellenismos, [[Shinto]], some forms of [[Wicca]] and [[Vodun]]. [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]] are regarded by some non-practitioners as polytheistic although this view of the religion is rejected by many believers. For example, see Ishta-Deva, a concept held in [[Smartism]], the only denomination in Hinduism that holds this view strictly and has confused outsiders to perceive Hinduism as polytheistic.) Vaishnavism and Shaivism, the other major denominations of Hinduism, however, conform to a Western perception of what a monotheistic faith is. Some [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Islam|Islamic]] scholars regard the [[Christianity|Christian]] doctrine of the trinity as bordering on polytheism, a view that Christians in general strongly reject.

=Ancient polytheism==

Well-known polytheistic pantheons in history include the Sumerian gods, the [[Egyptian gods]], the Norse Aesir and Vanir, the Yoruba Orisha, the Aztec gods, and many others. Today, most historical polytheistic religions are referred to as "mythology", though the stories cultures tell about their gods should be distinguished from their cultus or religious practice.

Few ancient religions, indeed, were not polytheistic. Those that weren't include early Vedic Hinduism (which has been termed at the most henotheistic with groundings of monotheistic, monotheistic and naturalist polytheistic philosophy), henotheistic Greek and the Roman Classical Pantheon of gods, the Abrahamic religions, dualistic Zoroastrianism and Mithraism, and possibly the short-lived Atenism promulgated by Akhenaton in Egypt in the 1350s BC.

In many civilizations, pantheons tended to grow over time. Deities first worshipped as the patrons of cities or places came to be collected together as empires extended over larger territories. Conquests could lead to the subordination of the elder culture's pantheon to a newer one, as in the Greek Titanomachia, and possibly also the case of the Aesir and Vanir in the Norse mythos. Cultural exchange could lead to "the same" deity being renowned in two places under different names, as with the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, and also to the introduction of elements of a "foreign" religion into a local cult, as with Egyptian [[Osiris]] worship brought to ancient Greece.

==Gods and divinity==

Hard polytheists believe that the Gods are distinct and separate beings and are happy to believe in the existence of the Gods of other peoples.

Soft polytheists come to regard their multiplicity of gods as simply representing different aspects or facets of a greater divine unity: not a personal God as in the monotheistic religions, but an ultimate reality of the divine. This concept, however, really should not be termed soft polytheism as monists believe in only one God, which can be expressed in a variety of forms or aspects. Indeed, this monism extends even beyond monotheism in rendering the ultimate one formless and without attributes, the best known example being Brahman in Advaita Vedanta, Smartism and Yoga streams of Hinduism. Modern Neopagan polytheists also often follow this model. However, other divisions of Hinduism such as Vaishnavism and [[Śaivism|Shaivism]] are monotheistic faiths that more closely adhere to the Western view of what a monotheistic faith is as those followers only believe in one aspect of God, similarly as Jews and Muslims only believe in [[Yahweh]] and [[Allah]].

Although many forms of Buddhism include veneration of bodhisattvas, these are not regarded as divine entities. Rather bodhisattvas are considered to be human beings who have reached a high stage of enlightenment, and one of the tenets of Buddhism is that over the course of many lifetimes any human being can also reach a similar state of enlightenment.

That a person believes in multiple gods does not imply that he or she necessarily worships them all. Many polytheists believe in the existence of many gods, but worship only one. Max Mueller, however, spoke of a tendency to worship one being or principle, recognized as such, manifesting as many, and this particular theism was termed henotheism. Some people view henotheism as a form of monotheism, others as monism; some historians have argued that the monotheistic religions originated in henotheism. Practically all Jews, Christians and Muslims today, however, view [[henotheism]] as polytheism.

==See also==
*[[Agnosticism]]
*[[Atheism]]
*[[Deism]]
*[[Monistic Theism]]
*[[Monotheism]]
*[[Pandeism]]
*[[Panentheism]]
*[[Pantheism]]
*[[Theism]]
*[[Transcendentalism]]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polytheism Polytheism]''. Retrieved on April 6, 2005.

Theodor Reuss

2005-07-16T19:47:58Z

Fr. Zabed:

Theodor Reuss (1855 - 1923 e.v.) Theodor Reuss was an Anglo-German tantric occultist, utopian socialist, journalist, singer, and promoter of Women's Liberation; and the successor to [[Carl Kellner]] as head of [[O.T.O.]]

Reuss was born the son of an innkeeper at Augsburg on June 28, 1855 e.v. He was a professional singer in his youth, and was privileged to work under [[Richard Wagner]], whom he first met, along with Wagner's patron, King [[Ludovicus Rex Bavariae|Ludwig II]] of Bavaria, in 1873. He took part in the first performance of Wagner's Parsifal at Bayreuth in 1882. He later became a newspaper correspondent, and travelled frequently as such to England, where he became a Mason in 1876. He also spent some time there as a journalist and as a music-hall singer under the stage name "Charles Theodore."

In 1880, in Munich, he participated in an attempt to revive Adam Weishaupt's Bavarian Order of Illuminati. In 1885, in England, he joined the British Social League, which some say he joined to spy on Karl Marx's daughter for the German Secret Service. While in England, he became friends with [[William Wynn Westcott]], the Supreme Magus of the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia and one of the founders of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]. Wescott provided Reuss with a charter dated July 26, 1901 for the Swedenborgian Rite of Masonry and a letter of authorization dated Feb. 24, 1902 to found a High Council in Germania of the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia. Gérard Encausse provided him with a charter dated June 24, 1901 designating him Special Inspector for the Martinist Order in Germany. In 1888, in Berlin, he joined with Leopold Engel of Dresden, Max Rahn and August Weinholz in another effort to revive the Illuminati Order. In 1895, he began to discuss the formation of [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] with Carl Kellner.

The discussions between Reuss and Kellner did not lead to any positive results at the time, allegedly because Kellner disapproved with Reuss's connections with Engel. According to Reuss, upon his final separation with Engel in June of 1902, Kellner contacted him and the two agreed to proceed with the establishment of the Oriental Templar Order by seeking authorizations to work the various rites of high-grade Masonry. Wescott assisted Reuss to contact the English Masonic scholar, John Yarker (1833-1913). Along with his associates Franz Hartmann and Henry Klein, he activated the Masonic Rites of Memphis and Mizraim and a branch of the Scottish Rite in Germany with charters from Yarker. Reuss received letters-patent as a Sovereign Grand Inspector General 33° of the Cernau Scottish Rite from Yarker dated September 24, 1902. On the same date, Yarker appears to have issued a warrant to Reuss, Franz Hartmann and Henry Klein to operate a Sovereign Sanctuary 33°-95° of the Scottish, Memphis and Mizraim rites. The original document is not extant, but a transcript of this warrant was published in Reuss's newsletter, The Oriflamme in 1911, which commenced publication in 1902. Yarker issued a charter confirming Reuss's authority to operate said rites on July 1, 1904; and Reuss published a transcript of an additional confirming charter dated June 24, 1905. Reuss and Kellner together prepared a brief manifesto for their Order in 1903, which was published the next year in The Oriflamme.

When Carl Kellner died in 1905, the leadership of the Academia Masonica of O.T.O. fell upon Reuss's shoulders, and he incorporated all his other organizations under its banner, developing the three degrees of the Academia Masonica, available to Masons only, into a coherent, self-contained initiatory system, open to both men and women. He promulgated a constitution for this new, enlarged O.T.O. on June 21, 1906 in London (his place of residence since January 1906) and the next month proclaimed himself Outer Head of the Order (O.H.O.). That same year he published Lingham-Yoni, which was a German translation of Hargrave Jennings's work Phallism, and issued a warrant to Rudolph Steiner (1861-1925, who was at the time the Secretary General of the German branch of the [[Theosophical Society]]), making him Deputy Grand Master of a subordinate O.T.O./Memphis/Mizraim Chapter and Grand Council called "Mystica Aeterna" in Berlin. Steiner went on to found the Anthroposophical Society in 1912, and ended his association with Reuss in 1914.

On June 24, 1908, Reuss attended Encausse's "International Masonic and Spiritualist Conference" in Paris. At this conference, Reuss issued to Encausse a warrant to establish a "Supreme Grand Council General of the Unified Rites of Antient and Primitive Masonry for the Grand Orient of France and its Dependencies at Paris," and possibly received authority in Église Catholique Gnostique. He also appointed Dr. Arnold Krumm-Heller (Huiracocha, 1879-1949) as his official representative for Latin America.

While living in London, Reuss became acquainted with [[Aleister Crowley]]. In 1910, he made Crowley a VII° of O.T.O. (based on Crowley's previously held 33° in the Scottish Rite), and in 1912, he conferred upon him the IX° and appointed him National Grand Master General X° for the O.T.O. in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland by charter dated June 1, 1912. Crowley's appointment included authority over an English language rite of the lower (Masonic) degrees of O.T.O. which was given the name Mysteria Mystica Maxima, or M:.M:.M:. In 1913, Crowley issued a Constitution for the M:.M:.M:. and the Manifesto of the M:.M:.M:., which he subsequently redrafted and issued as Liber LII, the Manifesto of the O.T.O. In 1913, Crowley wrote [[Liber XV]], the Gnostic Mass for Reuss's Gnostic Catholic Church. Crowley also dedicated his Mystery Play The Ship (1913) and a collection of poetry, The Giant's Thumb (1915) to Reuss.

In 1914, at the outset of World War I, Reuss left England and returned to Germany. He worked briefly for the Red Cross in Berlin, then, in 1916, moved to Basle, Switzerland. While there, he established an "Anational Grand Lodge and Mystic Temple" of O.T.O. and the Hermetic Brotherhood of Light at Monte Verità, a utopian commune near Ascona founded in 1900 by Henri Oedenkoven and Ida Hofmann, which functioned as a center for the Progressive Underground. On January 22, 1917, Reuss published a manifesto for this Anational Grand Lodge, which was called "Verità Mystica." On the same date, he published a revised O.T.O. Constitution (based in a large part on Crowley's 1913 Constitution of the M:.M:.M:.), with a "Synopsis of Degrees" and an abridgment of The Message of the Master Therion appended. Reuss held an "Anational Congress for Organising the Reconstruction of Society on Practical Cooperative Lines" at Monte Verità from August 15-25, 1917. This Congress included readings of Crowley's poetry (on August 22) and a recitation of Crowley's Gnostic Mass (on August 24). On October 24, 1917, Reuss Chartered an O.T.O. Lodge, "Libertas et Fraternitas" in Zürich. This Lodge later placed itself under the Masonic jurisdiction of the Swiss Grand Lodge Alpina.

In 1918, Reuss published his German translation of Crowley's Gnostic Mass. In a note at the end of his translation of Liber XV, he referred to himself as, simultaneously, the Sovereign Patriarch and Primate of the Gnostic Catholic Church, and Gnostic Legate to Switzerland of the Église Gnostique Universelle, acknowledging Jean Bricaud (1881-1934 -- on left in photo) as Sovereign Patriarch of that church. The issuance of this document can be viewed as the birth of the Thelemic E.G.C. as an independent organization under the umbrella of O.T.O., with Reuss as its first Patriarch.

Reuss was clearly impressed with Thelema. Crowley's Gnostic Mass, which Reuss translated into German and had recited at his Anational Congress at Monte Verità, is an explicitly Thelemic ritual. In an undated letter to Crowley (received in 1917), Reuss reported exitedly that he had read The Message of the Master Therion to a gathering at Monte Verità, and that he was translating The Book of the Law into German. He added, "Let this new encourage you! We live in your Work!!!"

Reuss left Monte Verità some time before November 1918. On May 10, 1919, Reuss issued a "Gauge of Amity" document to Matthew McBlain Thomson, founder of the ill-fated "American Masonic Federation." On September 18, 1919, Reuss was reconsecrated by Bricaud, thus receiving the "Antioch Succession," and re-appointed as "Gnostic Legate" to Switzerland for Bricaud's Église Gnostique Universelle. In 1920, Oedenkoven and Hofmann abandoned Monte Verità in 1920 to establish a second colony in Brazil, and Reuss published a document titled The Program of Construction and the Guiding Principles of the Gnostic Neo-Christians: O.T.O.

On July 17, 1920, he attended the Congress of the "World Federation of Universal Freemasonry" in Zürich, which lasted several days. Reuss, with Bricaud's support, advocated the adoption of the religion of Crowley's Gnostic Mass as the "official religion for all members of the World Federation of Universal Freemasonry in possession of the 18° of the Scottish Rite." Reuss's efforts in this regard were a failure, and he left the Congress after the first day. On May 10, 1921, Reuss issued X° Charters to [[Charles Stansfeld Jones]] and [[Heinrich Tränker]] to serve as Grand Masters for the U.S.A. and Germany, respectively. On July 30, 1921, Reuss issued another "Gauge of Amity" document, this time to [[H. Spencer Lewis]], founder of A.M.O.R.C., the San Jose, California based Rosicrucian organization. Reuss returned to Germany in September of 1921, settling in Munich.

There is some reason to believe that Reuss suffered a stroke in the Spring of 1920, but this is not entirely certain. Crowley wrote to W.T. Smith in March of 1943: "the late O.H.O., after his first stroke of paralysis, got into a panic about the work being carried on... He hastily issued honorary diplomas of the Seventh Degree to various people, some of whom had no right to anything at all and some of whom were only cheap crooks." Shortly after appointing him his Viceroy for Australia, Crowley appears to have corresponded with his student Frank Bennett and discussed with him his doubts about Reuss's continuing ability to effectively govern the Order. It would appear that Reuss discovered the correspondence; he wrote Crowley an angry, defensive response on November 9, 1921, in which he appeared to distance himself and O.T.O. from Thelema, which, as shown above, he had previously embraced. Crowley replied to Reuss's letter on November 23, 1921, and stated in his letter, "It is my will to be O.H.O. and Frater Superior of the Order and avail myself of your abdication -- to proclaim myself as such." He signed the letter "Baphomet O.H.O." Reuss's response is not extant, but Crowley recounts in his Confessions that Reuss "resigned the office [of O.H.O.] in 1922 in my favour." However, it does not appear that Crowley waited for Reuss's response to assume his duties. In a diary entry for November 27, 1921, Crowley wrote: "I have proclaimed myself O.H.O. Frater Superior of the Order of Oriental Templars." Reuss died on October 28, 1923. In a letter to Heinrich Tränker dated February 14, 1925, Crowley stated the following: "Reuss was very uncertain in temper, and in many ways unreliable. In his last years he seems to have completely lost his grip, even accusing The Book of the Law of communistic tendencies, than which no statement could be more absurd. Yet it seems that he must have been to some extent correctly led, on account of his having made the appointments of yourself and Frater Achad, and designating me in his last letter as his successor." In a letter to Charles Stansfeld Jones dated Sun in Capricorn, Anno XX (Dec. 1924 - Jan. 1925), Crowley said, "in the O.H.O.'s last letter to me he invited me to become his successor as O.H.O. and Frater Superior." Reuss's letter designating Crowley his successor as O.H.O. has not been found, but no credible documentation has surfaced which would indicate that Reuss ever designated any alternative successor.

Reuss's writings include: The Matrimonial Question from an Anarchistic Point of View (1887); Die Mysterien der Illuminaten (1894); Geschichte des Illuminaten-Ordens (1896); Was muss man von der Freimauerei wissen? (1901); Was ist Okkultismus und wie erlangt man occulte Kräfte? (1903); Was muss man von Richard Wagner und seinen Ton-dramen wissen? (1903); Lingam-Yoni; oder die Mysterien des Geschlechts-Kultus (1906); Allgemeine Satzungen des Ordens der Orientalischem Templer O.T.O. (1906; Parsifal und das Enthüllte Grals-Geheimnis (1914); Constitution of the Ancient Order of Oriental Templars, O.T.O., Ordo Templi Orientis, with an Introduction and a Synopsis of the Degrees of the O.T.O. (1917); Die Gnostische Messe (1920); Das Aufbau-Programm und die Leitsätze der Gnostischen Neo-Christen (1920); and numerous articles published in his periodical Oriflamme (1902-1914).

==References==
*http://www.hermetic.com/sabazius/reuss.htm The Invisible Basilica of Sabazius: Theodor Reuss. (c) Sabazius X. Used with grateful acknowledgement and by kind permission.
*Howe, Ellic; "Theodor Reuss: Irregular Freemasonry in Germany, 1900-23" in Ars Quatuor Coronati, Feb. 1978
*König, Peter-Robert; Das OTO-Phänomenon, A.R.W., München 1994
*Merlin Peregrinus (Theodor Reuss); I.N.R.I., O.T.O., Ecclesiae Gnosticae Catholicae, Canon Missae, Die Gnostische Messe [1918], privately published by the Oriflamme 1920, translated by Marcus M. Jungkurth
*Möller, Helmut and Ellic Howe; Merlin Peregrinus, vom Untergrund des Abendlandes, Königshausen & Neumann, Würtzburg 1986
*Reuss, Theodor; I.N.R.I. Constitution of the Ancient Order of Oriental Templars, O.T.O., Ordo Templi Orientis, with an Introduction and a Synopsis of the Degrees of the O.T.O., 1917
*Reuss, Theodor; Ordo Templi Orientis - Hermetic Brotherhood of Light. Anational Grand Lodge & Mystic Temple: "Verità Mystica", or Ascona. Manifesto., Ascona, Switzerland 1917
*Reuss, Theodor; I.N.R.I. The Programme of Construction and the Guiding Principles of the Gnostic Neo-Christians, O.T.O., 1920
*Reuss, Theodor; Introduction to Lingham-Yoni (Phallism, by Hargrave Jennings), Verlag Wilsson, Berlin 1906
*Shepard, Leslie (Ed.); Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology, 2nd. Ed., Gale Research Co., Detroit MI 1984
*Symonds, John and Kenneth Grant, eds.; The Magical Record of the Beast 666, Duckworth, London 1972

[[Category:Occultists]]
[[Category:Past Masters]]
[[Category:Tantrics]]
[[Category:Ordo Templi Orientis]]

Theodor Reuss

2005-07-16T17:20:31Z

Fr. Zabed:

Theodor Reuss (1855 - 1923 e.v.) Theodor Reuss was an Anglo-German tantric occultist, utopian socialist, journalist, singer, and promoter of Women's Liberation; and the successor to [[Carl Kellner]] as head of [[O.T.O.]]

Reuss was born the son of an innkeeper at Augsburg on June 28, 1855 e.v. He was a professional singer in his youth, and was privileged to work under [[Richard Wagner]], whom he first met, along with Wagner's patron, King [[Ludovicus Rex Bavariae|Ludwig II]] of Bavaria, in 1873. He took part in the first performance of Wagner's Parsifal at Bayreuth in 1882. He later became a newspaper correspondent, and travelled frequently as such to England, where he became a Mason in 1876. He also spent some time there as a journalist and as a music-hall singer under the stage name "Charles Theodore."

In 1880, in Munich, he participated in an attempt to revive Adam Weishaupt's Bavarian Order of Illuminati. In 1885, in England, he joined the British Social League, which some say he joined to spy on Karl Marx's daughter for the German Secret Service. While in England, he became friends with [[William Wynn Westcott]], the Supreme Magus of the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia and one of the founders of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]. Wescott provided Reuss with a charter dated July 26, 1901 for the Swedenborgian Rite of Masonry and a letter of authorization dated Feb. 24, 1902 to found a High Council in Germania of the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia. Gérard Encausse provided him with a charter dated June 24, 1901 designating him Special Inspector for the Martinist Order in Germany. In 1888, in Berlin, he joined with Leopold Engel of Dresden, Max Rahn and August Weinholz in another effort to revive the Illuminati Order. In 1895, he began to discuss the formation of [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] with Carl Kellner.

The discussions between Reuss and Kellner did not lead to any positive results at the time, allegedly because Kellner disapproved with Reuss's connections with Engel. According to Reuss, upon his final separation with Engel in June of 1902, Kellner contacted him and the two agreed to proceed with the establishment of the Oriental Templar Order by seeking authorizations to work the various rites of high-grade Masonry. Wescott assisted Reuss to contact the English Masonic scholar, John Yarker (1833-1913). Along with his associates Franz Hartmann and Henry Klein, he activated the Masonic Rites of Memphis and Mizraim and a branch of the Scottish Rite in Germany with charters from Yarker. Reuss received letters-patent as a Sovereign Grand Inspector General 33° of the Cernau Scottish Rite from Yarker dated September 24, 1902. On the same date, Yarker appears to have issued a warrant to Reuss, Franz Hartmann and Henry Klein to operate a Sovereign Sanctuary 33°-95° of the Scottish, Memphis and Mizraim rites. The original document is not extant, but a transcript of this warrant was published in Reuss's newsletter, The Oriflamme in 1911, which commenced publication in 1902. Yarker issued a charter confirming Reuss's authority to operate said rites on July 1, 1904; and Reuss published a transcript of an additional confirming charter dated June 24, 1905. Reuss and Kellner together prepared a brief manifesto for their Order in 1903, which was published the next year in The Oriflamme.

When Carl Kellner died in 1905, the leadership of the Academia Masonica of O.T.O. fell upon Reuss's shoulders, and he incorporated all his other organizations under its banner, developing the three degrees of the Academia Masonica, available to Masons only, into a coherent, self-contained initiatory system, open to both men and women. He promulgated a constitution for this new, enlarged O.T.O. on June 21, 1906 in London (his place of residence since January 1906) and the next month proclaimed himself Outer Head of the Order (O.H.O.). That same year he published Lingham-Yoni, which was a German translation of Hargrave Jennings's work Phallism, and issued a warrant to Rudolph Steiner (1861-1925, who was at the time the Secretary General of the German branch of the [[Theosophical Society]]), making him Deputy Grand Master of a subordinate O.T.O./Memphis/Mizraim Chapter and Grand Council called "Mystica Aeterna" in Berlin. Steiner went on to found the Anthroposophical Society in 1912, and ended his association with Reuss in 1914.

On June 24, 1908, Reuss attended Encausse's "International Masonic and Spiritualist Conference" in Paris. At this conference, Reuss issued to Encausse a warrant to establish a "Supreme Grand Council General of the Unified Rites of Antient and Primitive Masonry for the Grand Orient of France and its Dependencies at Paris," and possibly received authority in Église Catholique Gnostique. He also appointed Dr. Arnold Krumm-Heller (Huiracocha, 1879-1949) as his official representative for Latin America.

While living in London, Reuss became acquainted with [[Aleister Crowley]]. In 1910, he made Crowley a VII° of O.T.O. (based on Crowley's previously held 33° in the Scottish Rite), and in 1912, he conferred upon him the IX° and appointed him National Grand Master General X° for the O.T.O. in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland by charter dated June 1, 1912. Crowley's appointment included authority over an English language rite of the lower (Masonic) degrees of O.T.O. which was given the name Mysteria Mystica Maxima, or M:.M:.M:. In 1913, Crowley issued a Constitution for the M:.M:.M:. and the Manifesto of the M:.M:.M:., which he subsequently redrafted and issued as Liber LII, the Manifesto of the O.T.O. In 1913, Crowley wrote [[Liber XV]], the Gnostic Mass for Reuss's Gnostic Catholic Church. Crowley also dedicated his Mystery Play The Ship (1913) and a collection of poetry, The Giant's Thumb (1915) to Reuss.

In 1914, at the outset of World War I, Reuss left England and returned to Germany. He worked briefly for the Red Cross in Berlin, then, in 1916, moved to Basle, Switzerland. While there, he established an "Anational Grand Lodge and Mystic Temple" of O.T.O. and the Hermetic Brotherhood of Light at Monte Verità, a utopian commune near Ascona founded in 1900 by Henri Oedenkoven and Ida Hofmann, which functioned as a center for the Progressive Underground. On January 22, 1917, Reuss published a manifesto for this Anational Grand Lodge, which was called "Verità Mystica." On the same date, he published a revised O.T.O. Constitution (based in a large part on Crowley's 1913 Constitution of the M:.M:.M:.), with a "Synopsis of Degrees" and an abridgment of The Message of the Master Therion appended. Reuss held an "Anational Congress for Organising the Reconstruction of Society on Practical Cooperative Lines" at Monte Verità from August 15-25, 1917. This Congress included readings of Crowley's poetry (on August 22) and a recitation of Crowley's Gnostic Mass (on August 24). On October 24, 1917, Reuss Chartered an O.T.O. Lodge, "Libertas et Fraternitas" in Zürich. This Lodge later placed itself under the Masonic jurisdiction of the Swiss Grand Lodge Alpina.

In 1918, Reuss published his German translation of Crowley's Gnostic Mass. In a note at the end of his translation of Liber XV, he referred to himself as, simultaneously, the Sovereign Patriarch and Primate of the Gnostic Catholic Church, and Gnostic Legate to Switzerland of the Église Gnostique Universelle, acknowledging Jean Bricaud (1881-1934 -- on left in photo) as Sovereign Patriarch of that church. The issuance of this document can be viewed as the birth of the Thelemic E.G.C. as an independent organization under the umbrella of O.T.O., with Reuss as its first Patriarch.

Reuss was clearly impressed with Thelema. Crowley's Gnostic Mass, which Reuss translated into German and had recited at his Anational Congress at Monte Verità, is an explicitly Thelemic ritual. In an undated letter to Crowley (received in 1917), Reuss reported exitedly that he had read The Message of the Master Therion to a gathering at Monte Verità, and that he was translating The Book of the Law into German. He added, "Let this new encourage you! We live in your Work!!!"

Reuss left Monte Verità some time before November 1918. On May 10, 1919, Reuss issued a "Gauge of Amity" document to Matthew McBlain Thomson, founder of the ill-fated "American Masonic Federation." On September 18, 1919, Reuss was reconsecrated by Bricaud, thus receiving the "Antioch Succession," and re-appointed as "Gnostic Legate" to Switzerland for Bricaud's Église Gnostique Universelle. In 1920, Oedenkoven and Hofmann abandoned Monte Verità in 1920 to establish a second colony in Brazil, and Reuss published a document titled The Program of Construction and the Guiding Principles of the Gnostic Neo-Christians: O.T.O.

On July 17, 1920, he attended the Congress of the "World Federation of Universal Freemasonry" in Zürich, which lasted several days. Reuss, with Bricaud's support, advocated the adoption of the religion of Crowley's Gnostic Mass as the "official religion for all members of the World Federation of Universal Freemasonry in possession of the 18° of the Scottish Rite." Reuss's efforts in this regard were a failure, and he left the Congress after the first day. On May 10, 1921, Reuss issued X° Charters to [[Charles Stansfeld Jones]] and [Heinrich Tränker] to serve as Grand Masters for the U.S.A. and Germany, respectively. On July 30, 1921, Reuss issued another "Gauge of Amity" document, this time to [[H. Spencer Lewis]], founder of A.M.O.R.C., the San Jose, California based Rosicrucian organization. Reuss returned to Germany in September of 1921, settling in Munich.

There is some reason to believe that Reuss suffered a stroke in the Spring of 1920, but this is not entirely certain. Crowley wrote to W.T. Smith in March of 1943: "the late O.H.O., after his first stroke of paralysis, got into a panic about the work being carried on... He hastily issued honorary diplomas of the Seventh Degree to various people, some of whom had no right to anything at all and some of whom were only cheap crooks." Shortly after appointing him his Viceroy for Australia, Crowley appears to have corresponded with his student Frank Bennett and discussed with him his doubts about Reuss's continuing ability to effectively govern the Order. It would appear that Reuss discovered the correspondence; he wrote Crowley an angry, defensive response on November 9, 1921, in which he appeared to distance himself and O.T.O. from Thelema, which, as shown above, he had previously embraced. Crowley replied to Reuss's letter on November 23, 1921, and stated in his letter, "It is my will to be O.H.O. and Frater Superior of the Order and avail myself of your abdication -- to proclaim myself as such." He signed the letter "Baphomet O.H.O." Reuss's response is not extant, but Crowley recounts in his Confessions that Reuss "resigned the office [of O.H.O.] in 1922 in my favour." However, it does not appear that Crowley waited for Reuss's response to assume his duties. In a diary entry for November 27, 1921, Crowley wrote: "I have proclaimed myself O.H.O. Frater Superior of the Order of Oriental Templars." Reuss died on October 28, 1923. In a letter to Heinrich Tränker dated February 14, 1925, Crowley stated the following: "Reuss was very uncertain in temper, and in many ways unreliable. In his last years he seems to have completely lost his grip, even accusing The Book of the Law of communistic tendencies, than which no statement could be more absurd. Yet it seems that he must have been to some extent correctly led, on account of his having made the appointments of yourself and Frater Achad, and designating me in his last letter as his successor." In a letter to Charles Stansfeld Jones dated Sun in Capricorn, Anno XX (Dec. 1924 - Jan. 1925), Crowley said, "in the O.H.O.'s last letter to me he invited me to become his successor as O.H.O. and Frater Superior." Reuss's letter designating Crowley his successor as O.H.O. has not been found, but no credible documentation has surfaced which would indicate that Reuss ever designated any alternative successor.

Reuss's writings include: The Matrimonial Question from an Anarchistic Point of View (1887); Die Mysterien der Illuminaten (1894); Geschichte des Illuminaten-Ordens (1896); Was muss man von der Freimauerei wissen? (1901); Was ist Okkultismus und wie erlangt man occulte Kräfte? (1903); Was muss man von Richard Wagner und seinen Ton-dramen wissen? (1903); Lingam-Yoni; oder die Mysterien des Geschlechts-Kultus (1906); Allgemeine Satzungen des Ordens der Orientalischem Templer O.T.O. (1906; Parsifal und das Enthüllte Grals-Geheimnis (1914); Constitution of the Ancient Order of Oriental Templars, O.T.O., Ordo Templi Orientis, with an Introduction and a Synopsis of the Degrees of the O.T.O. (1917); Die Gnostische Messe (1920); Das Aufbau-Programm und die Leitsätze der Gnostischen Neo-Christen (1920); and numerous articles published in his periodical Oriflamme (1902-1914).

==References==
*http://www.hermetic.com/sabazius/reuss.htm The Invisible Basilica of Sabazius: Theodor Reuss. (c) Sabazius X. Used with grateful acknowledgement and by kind permission.
*Howe, Ellic; "Theodor Reuss: Irregular Freemasonry in Germany, 1900-23" in Ars Quatuor Coronati, Feb. 1978
*König, Peter-Robert; Das OTO-Phänomenon, A.R.W., München 1994
*Merlin Peregrinus (Theodor Reuss); I.N.R.I., O.T.O., Ecclesiae Gnosticae Catholicae, Canon Missae, Die Gnostische Messe [1918], privately published by the Oriflamme 1920, translated by Marcus M. Jungkurth
*Möller, Helmut and Ellic Howe; Merlin Peregrinus, vom Untergrund des Abendlandes, Königshausen & Neumann, Würtzburg 1986
*Reuss, Theodor; I.N.R.I. Constitution of the Ancient Order of Oriental Templars, O.T.O., Ordo Templi Orientis, with an Introduction and a Synopsis of the Degrees of the O.T.O., 1917
*Reuss, Theodor; Ordo Templi Orientis - Hermetic Brotherhood of Light. Anational Grand Lodge & Mystic Temple: "Verità Mystica", or Ascona. Manifesto., Ascona, Switzerland 1917
*Reuss, Theodor; I.N.R.I. The Programme of Construction and the Guiding Principles of the Gnostic Neo-Christians, O.T.O., 1920
*Reuss, Theodor; Introduction to Lingham-Yoni (Phallism, by Hargrave Jennings), Verlag Wilsson, Berlin 1906
*Shepard, Leslie (Ed.); Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology, 2nd. Ed., Gale Research Co., Detroit MI 1984
*Symonds, John and Kenneth Grant, eds.; The Magical Record of the Beast 666, Duckworth, London 1972

[[Category:Occultists]]
[[Category:Past Masters]]
[[Category:Tantrics]]
[[Category:Ordo Templi Orientis]]

Rosicrucians

2005-07-16T13:07:44Z

Fr. Zabed:

The Rosicrucians are a legendary and secretive order dating from the 15th or 17th century, generally associated with the symbol of the Rose Cross, which is also used in certain rituals of the Freemasons. Several modern societies have been formed for the study of Rosicrucianism and allied subjects, but in no sense are they directly derived from the "Brethren of the Rosy Cross" of the 17th century, though they are keen followers thereof.

==History & Origins==

According to the legend, the Rosicrucian order was founded in 1407 by a German named [[Christian Rosencreutz]] (1378-1484), who studied in the Holy Land under various occult masters. During his lifetime, the order was alleged to be small, consisting of no more than eight members. When Rosencreuz died in 1484, the order died out, only to be "reborn" in the early 17th century. This legend is accepted to varying degrees by modern Rosicrucians, with some accepting it as literal truth, others seeing it as a parable, and yet others believing Rosenkreuz to be a pseudonym for some more famous historical figure ([[Francis Bacon]] is often suggested.)

According to a lesser known legend found in [[Freemasonry|Masonic]] literature, the Rosicrucian order was created in 46 C.E. when an Alexandrian Gnostic sage named Ormus and his six followers were converted by Mark, one of Jesus' disciples. From this conversion, Rosicrucianism was born by fusing primitive Christianity with Egyptian mysteries. Rosencreuz would therefore only have been initiated into and become the Grand Master of an already existing order instead of being its founder.

In point of fact, what was known in the early 17th century as the "Society of Rosicrucians" (Rosenkreuzer) was most likely a number of isolated individuals who held certain views in common (which apparently was their only bond of union). There is no trace of a society holding meetings, or having officers. So far as the numerous works are concerned, it is evident that the writers who posed as Rosicrucians were moral and religious reformers, and utilized the technicalities of chemistry ([[alchemy]]), and the sciences generally, as media through which to make known their opinions. Their writings included a flavour of mysticism or occultism promotive of inquiry and suggestive of hidden meanings discernible or discoverable only by adepts.

The publication of ''The Fama Fraternitas of the Meritorious Order of the Rosy Cross'' (1614), ''The Confession of the Rosicrucian Fraternity'' (1615), and ''The Chemical Marriage of Christian Rosenkreuz'' (1616) caused immense excitement throughout Europe, and they not only led to many re-issues, but were followed by numerous pamphlets, favourable and otherwise, whose authors generally knew little of the real aims of the original author (and doubtless in not a few cases amused themselves at the expense of the public). It is probable that the first work was circulated in manuscript for about 1610, according to historical records, but if so, there was no mention of the cult before that decade. In fact, research indicates that all three documents, including the concept of the Rosicrucian Order, were probably the creation of theologian Johann Valentin Andrea (1586-1654). He subsequently described rosicrucianism as a Ludibrium.

The authors of the Rosicrucian works generally favoured Lutheranism as opposed to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]]. Others, like John Heydon, admitted they were not Rosicrucians, but under attractive and suggestive titles to their works sought to make Hermeticism and other curious studies more useful and popular, and succeeded, for a time at least.

The curious legend, in which the fabulous origin of the so-called society was enshrined (Christian Rosenkreuz had discovered the secret wisdom of the East on a pilgrimage in the 15th century), was so improbable, though ingenious, that the genesis of the Rosicrucians was generally overlooked or ignored in the writings of the time.

==Influence on Freemasonry==

The influence that Rosicrucianism had in the modernizing of ancient Freemasonry early in the 18th century must have been slight, if any, though it is likely that as the century advanced, and additional ceremonies were grafted on to the first three degrees, Rosicrucian tenets were occasionally introduced into the later rituals. So far, however, as the real foundation ceremonies of Craft Masonry are concerned, whether before or after the premier Grand Lodge was formed, it is most unlikely that such a society as the Freemasons would adopt anything of a really distinctive character from any other organization.

==The term==

Rosicrucian is a term that is also used to describe an idea, icon, person or group that is simultaneously [[Christianity|Christian]] and trans-Christian. For example, a cult that centers around the [[Virgin Mary]] yet openly or secretly identifies her to the Virgo constellation of the [[Zodiac]].

In ''The Muses' Threnodie'' by H. Adamson (Perth, 1638) are the lines: "For what we do presage is riot in grosse, for we are brethren of the Rosie Crosse; We have the Mason Word and second sight, Things for to come we can fortell aright."

==The manifestos==

*1614: Fama Fraternitatis
*1615: Confessio Fraternitatis
*1616: Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreuz (not Chemical)

In 1623 the Rose-Croix of Paris placed mysterious posters on walls. The posters included the text: "We, the Deputies of the Higher College of the Rose-Croix, do make our stay, visibly and invisibly, in this city (...)" and "The thoughts attached to the real desire of the seeker will lead us to him and him to us".

Between 1614 and 1620 about 400 manuscripts and books published which discussed the Rose-Croix documents.

In 2001 (Rosicrucian Year 3354), [[Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis]] (AMORC) published the ''Positio Fraternitatis Rosae Crucis.''

==Modern groups==

During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, various groups styled themselves Rosicrucian. Almost all claimed to be authentic heirs to a historical Rosicrucian tradition.

*[[AMORC]]
*Confraternity of the Rose Cross
*Fraternitas Rosae Crucis
*Societas Rosicruciana
*Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship
*Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia
*Rosicrucian Fellowship
*Order of the Temple of the Rosy Cross
*Rosicrucian Lectorium
*and others.

==Aleister Crowley on Rosicrucianism==

"There is in history only one movement whose object has been to organize the isolated adepts of the White School of Magick, and this movement was totally unconnected with religion, except in so far as it lent its influence to the reformers of the Christian church. Its appeal was not at all to the people. It merely offered to open up relations with, and communicate certain practical secrets of wisdom to, isolated men of science through Europe. This movement is generally known by the name of Rosicrucianism.

"The word arouses all sorts of regrettable correspondences; but the adepts of the Society have never worried themselves in the least about the abuse of their name for the purposes of charlatanism, or about the attacks directed against them by envious critics. Indeed, so wisely have they concealed their activities that some modern scholars of the shallower type have declared that no such movement ever existed, that it was a kind of practical joke played upon the curiosity of the credulous Middle Ages. It is at least certain that, since the original proclamations, no official publications have been put forward. The essential secrets have been maintained inviolate. If, during the last few years, a considerable number of documents have been published by them, though not in their name, it is on account of the impending crisis to civilization, of which mention will later be made.

"There is no good purpose, even were there license, to discuss the nature of the basis of scientific attainment which is the core of the doctrines of the Society. It is only necessary to point out that its correspondence with alchemy is the one genuine fact on the subject which has been allowed to transpire; for the Rosicrucian, as indicated by his central symbol, the barren cross on which he has made a rose to flower, occupies himself primarily with spiritual and physiological alchemy. Taking for 'The First Matter of the Work' a neutral or inert substance (it is constantly described as the commonest and least valued thing on earth, and may actually connote any substance whatever) he deliberately poisons it, so to speak, bringing it to a stage of transmutation generally called the Black Dragon, and he proceeds to work upon this virulent poison until he obtains the perfection theoretically possible." --Magick Without Tears chapter VIII

"It is here desirable to warn the reader against the numerous false orders which have impudently assumed the name of Rosicrucian. The Masonic Societas Rosicruciana is honest and harmless; and makes no false pretences; if its members happen as a rule to be pompous busy-bodies, enlarging the borders of their phylacteries, and scrupulous about cleansing the outside of the cup and the platter; if the masks of the Officers in their Mysteries suggest the Owl, the Cat, the Parrot, and the Cuckoo, while the Robe of their Chief Magus is a Lion's Skin, that is their affair. But those orders run by persons 'claiming' to represent the True Ancient Fraternity are common swindles. The representatives of the late S. L. Mathers (Count McGregor) are the phosphorescence of the rotten wood of a branch which was lopped off the tree at the end of the 19th century. Those of Papus (Dr. Encausse), Stanislas de Guaita and Peladan, merit respect as serious, but lack full knowledge and authority. The 'Ordo Rosae Crucis' is a mass of ignorance and falsehood, but this may be a deliberate device for masking itself. The test of any Order is its attitude towards the Law of Thelema. The True Order presents the True Symbols, but avoids attaching the True Name thereto; it is only when the Postulant has taken irrevocable Oaths and been received formally, that he discovers what Fraternity he has joined. If he have taken false symbols for true, and find himself magically pledged to a gang of rascals, so much the worse for him!" --Magick in Theory & Practice chapter XII

==References==

* Wikipedia (2004). [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosicrucian Rosicrucian]. Retrieved Sept. 18, 2004.

==External links==

* [http://www.rosicrucian.org/ AMORC USA]
* [http://www.amorc.org/ AMORC Directory of Grand Lodges]
* [http://www.rosicrucians.org/ Rosicrucian Salon]
* [http://www.crcsite.org/crc.htm Confraternity of Rose Cross]
* [http://www.arcgl.org/ arcgl.org]
* [http://www.rosicrucian-order.com/ rosicrucian-order.org]
* [http://www.rosycross.org/ rosycross.org]
* http://www.americanreligion.org/cultwtch/rosicruc.html
* [http://www.lectoriumrosicrucianum.org/ Lectorium Rosucrucianum]
* [http://www.soul.org/ Fraternitas Rosae Crucis]
* [http://www.svmmvmbonvm.org/ SVMMVM BONVM Organization]
* [http://www.rosicrucian.com/ The Rosicrucian Fellowship]
* [http://geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/2216/ A Rosicrucian Page - 2000 C.E.]
* [http://www.crc-rose-croix.org/ CR+C France]
* [http://www.rosecroix.com/ rosecroix.com]
* [http://www.rosycross.org/ rosycross.org]

[[Category:Organizations]]

Bahá'í Faith

2005-07-15T23:50:12Z

Fr. Zabed:

The '''Bahá'í Faith''' is an emerging global religion founded by [[Bahá'u'lláh]], a nineteenth-century Iranian exile. '''"Bahá'í"''' is either an adjective referring to this religion, or the term for a follower of Bahá'u'lláh.

Bahá'í theology speaks of three interlocking unities: the oneness of God ([[monotheism]]); the oneness of his prophets or messengers (religious perennialism); and the oneness of humanity (equality, globalism). These three principles have a profound impact on the theological and social teachings of this religion.

Religion is seen as a progressively unfolding process of education, by God, through his messengers, to a constantly evolving human family. [[Bahá'u'lláh]] is seen as the most recent, pivotal, but not final of God's messengers. His major purpose was to lay the spiritual foundations for a new global civilization of peace and harmony, which Bahá'ís expect to gradually arise.

==Relation to other religions==

Bahá'ís believe in a process of progressive revelation recognising most of the major religions' founders including [[Zoroaster]] (Zarathustra), [[Krishna]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Buddha]], [[Jesus]], and [[Mohammed]]. Like Muslims, Bahá'ís interpret religious history in terms of a series of prophetic dispensations. Each [[prophet]] or messenger brings a somewhat broader and more advanced revelation.

===Manifestations===

Use of the English word "prophet" obscures the fact that Bahá'ís view not only the prophetic messages as divine, but also the messengers themselves, who are said to possess both human and divine stations. This resembles the [[Shi'a|Shi'i]] understanding of the prophets and [[imams]], as well as the Christian view of Christ. To avoid confusion, Baha'is normally refer to the major prophets as divine "Manifestations" (''mazhar'').

===Distinction===

The belief in the divinity of several major world religions have led some to characterize the Bahá'í Faith as syncretic in nature. Bahá'ís however see theirs not as a combination of religions, but as a distinct religious tradition with some 150 years of sacred history. It has its own scriptures, teachings, and laws.

Bahá'ís describe their faith as an independent world religion, differing from the other great religious traditions only in its newness. They consider that their religion has emerged from Islam in much the same way that Christianity emerged from Judaism, or Buddhism from Hinduism. Bahá'u'lláh is thought to fulfill the messianic promises, and other spiritual aspirations, of all these various predecessor faiths.

===Persecution===

Bahá'ís continue to be persecuted in Islamic countries--especially in Iran, where over 200 believers were executed between 1978 and 1998. Bahá'ís have been banned from attending university and holding government jobs since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, and many Bahá'ís were imprisoned during the early 1980's. Bahá'í cemeteries have been desecrated and property seized and occasionally demolished including the House of Mírzá Burzurg, Bahá'u'lláh's father. The House of the Báb in Shiraz has been destroyed twice, and is one of three sites to which Bahá'ís perform pilgrimage. As of mid-2005, arrests and persecutions of Baha'is by the Iranian government have continued.

===The Covenant===

Bahá'ís believe that Bahá'u'lláh has guaranteed the continuing unity of their faith by ordaining certain authorities and institutions, which are described at length below. This divine guarantee of the integrity of Bahá'í institutions is known as the "The Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh," and is said to distinguish the Bahá'í Faith from others with equally divine origins. Bahá'ís believe that God will protect their faith from the fate of earlier religions, which have divided into sects and denominations. They accordingly characterize divisions within the Bahá'í faith as insignificant, ephemeral, and ill-motivated.

==Teachings==
Shoghi Effendi wrote the following summary of what he considered to be the distinguishing principles of Bahá'u'lláh's teachings, which, he said, together with the laws and ordinances of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas constitute the bed-rock of the Bahá'í Faith:
:"The independent search after truth, unfettered by superstition or tradition; the oneness of the entire human race, the pivotal principle and fundamental doctrine of the Faith; the basic unity of all religions; the condemnation of all forms of prejudice, whether religious, racial, class or national; the harmony which must exist between religion and science; the equality of men and women, the two wings on which the bird of human kind is able to soar; the introduction of compulsory education; the adoption of a universal auxiliary language; the abolition of the extremes of wealth and poverty; the institution of a world tribunal for the adjudication of disputes between nations; the exaltation of work, performed in the spirit of service, to the rank of worship; the glorification of justice as the ruling principle in human society, and of religion as a bulwark for the protection of all peoples and nations; and the establishment of a permanent and universal peace as the supreme goal of all mankind—these stand out as the essential elements [which Bahá'u'lláh proclaimed]."
::''God Passes By'', p. 281

===Social Principles===
The following 12 "principles" are frequently listed as a quick summary of the Bahá'í teachings. They are derived from transcripts of speeches given by `Abdu'l-Bahá during his tour of Europe and North America in 1912. The list is not authoritative and a variety of such lists circulate.

:*The Oneness of God
:*The Oneness of religion
:*The Oneness of mankind
:*Equality of women and men
:*Elimination of all forms of prejudice
:*World peace
:*Harmony of religion and science
:*Independent investigation of truth
:*The need for universal compulsory education
:*The need for a universal auxiliary language
:*Obedience to government and non-involvement in politics
:*Elimination of extremes of wealth and poverty

The first three of this list are commonly referred to as the Three Onenesses, and form a fundamental part of Baha'i beliefs.

===Mystical Teachings===
The purpose of human life, say Bahá'ís, is spiritual growth. This is conceived almost as an organic process, like the development of a fetus, and continues after death. Rather than a heaven and hell strictly speaking (or reincarnation, for that matter), Bahá'ís teach an afterlife in which the soul may progress through ever-more-exalted spiritual realms.

Bahá'ís believe that while God's essence can never be fully fathomed, he can be understood through his "names and attributes." These are likened to gems and include such divine qualities as compassion or wisdom. Education (especially of a spiritual nature) reveals the divine gems which God has placed within our souls.

Bahá'u'lláh's Hidden Words, The Seven Valleys, and The Four Valleys are favorite mystical texts. Bahá'í spirituality tends to consist of textual study, prayer, and recitation. Monasticism is forbidden, and Bahá'ís attempt to ground their spirituality in ordinary daily life. Performing useful work, for example, is not only required but considered a form of worship.

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahai_faith Bahá'í Faith]''. Retrieved on July 16. 2005.

Bahá'í Faith

2005-07-15T23:49:10Z

Fr. Zabed:

The '''Bahá'í Faith''' is an emerging global religion founded by [[Bahá'u'lláh]], a nineteenth-century Iranian exile. '''"Bahá'í"''' is either an adjective referring to this religion, or the term for a follower of Bahá'u'lláh.

Bahá'í theology speaks of [[Three Onenesses|three interlocking unities]]: the oneness of God ([[monotheism]]); the oneness of his prophets or messengers (religious perennialism); and the oneness of humanity (equality, globalism). These three principles have a profound impact on the theological and social teachings of this religion.

Religion is seen as a progressively unfolding process of education, by God, through his messengers, to a constantly evolving human family. [[Bahá'u'lláh]] is seen as the most recent, pivotal, but not final of God's messengers. His major purpose was to lay the spiritual foundations for a new global civilization of peace and harmony, which Bahá'ís expect to gradually arise.

==Relation to other religions==

Bahá'ís believe in a process of [[progressive revelation]] recognising most of the major religions' founders including [[Zoroaster]] (Zarathustra), [[Krishna]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Buddha]], [[Jesus]], and [[Mohammed]]. Like Muslims, Bahá'ís interpret religious history in terms of a series of prophetic dispensations. Each [[prophet]] or messenger brings a somewhat broader and more advanced revelation.

===Manifestations===

Use of the English word "prophet" obscures the fact that Bahá'ís view not only the prophetic messages as divine, but also the messengers themselves, who are said to possess both human and divine stations. This resembles the [[Shi'i]] understanding of the prophets and [[imams]], as well as the Christian view of Christ. To avoid confusion, Baha'is normally refer to the major prophets as divine "Manifestations" (''mazhar'').

===Distinction===

The belief in the divinity of several major world religions have led some to characterize the Bahá'í Faith as syncretic in nature. Bahá'ís however see theirs not as a combination of religions, but as a distinct religious tradition with some 150 years of sacred history. It has its own scriptures, teachings, and laws.

Bahá'ís describe their faith as an independent world religion, differing from the other great religious traditions only in its newness. They consider that their religion has emerged from Islam in much the same way that Christianity emerged from Judaism, or Buddhism from Hinduism. Bahá'u'lláh is thought to fulfill the messianic promises, and other spiritual aspirations, of all these various predecessor faiths.

===Persecution===

Bahá'ís continue to be persecuted in Islamic countries--especially in Iran, where over 200 believers were executed between 1978 and 1998. Bahá'ís have been banned from attending university and holding government jobs since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, and many Bahá'ís were imprisoned during the early 1980's. Bahá'í cemeteries have been desecrated and property seized and occasionally demolished including the House of Mírzá Burzurg, Bahá'u'lláh's father. The House of the Báb in Shiraz has been destroyed twice, and is one of three sites to which Bahá'ís perform pilgrimage. As of mid-2005, arrests and persecutions of Baha'is by the Iranian government have continued.

===The Covenant===

Bahá'ís believe that Bahá'u'lláh has guaranteed the continuing unity of their faith by ordaining certain authorities and institutions, which are described at length below. This divine guarantee of the integrity of Bahá'í institutions is known as the "The Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh," and is said to distinguish the Bahá'í Faith from others with equally divine origins. Bahá'ís believe that God will protect their faith from the fate of earlier religions, which have divided into sects and denominations. They accordingly characterize divisions within the Bahá'í faith as insignificant, ephemeral, and ill-motivated.

==Teachings==
Shoghi Effendi wrote the following summary of what he considered to be the distinguishing principles of Bahá'u'lláh's teachings, which, he said, together with the laws and ordinances of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas constitute the bed-rock of the Bahá'í Faith:
:"The independent search after truth, unfettered by superstition or tradition; the oneness of the entire human race, the pivotal principle and fundamental doctrine of the Faith; the basic unity of all religions; the condemnation of all forms of prejudice, whether religious, racial, class or national; the harmony which must exist between religion and science; the equality of men and women, the two wings on which the bird of human kind is able to soar; the introduction of compulsory education; the adoption of a universal auxiliary language; the abolition of the extremes of wealth and poverty; the institution of a world tribunal for the adjudication of disputes between nations; the exaltation of work, performed in the spirit of service, to the rank of worship; the glorification of justice as the ruling principle in human society, and of religion as a bulwark for the protection of all peoples and nations; and the establishment of a permanent and universal peace as the supreme goal of all mankind—these stand out as the essential elements [which Bahá'u'lláh proclaimed]."
::''God Passes By'', p. 281

===Social Principles===
The following 12 "principles" are frequently listed as a quick summary of the Bahá'í teachings. They are derived from transcripts of speeches given by `Abdu'l-Bahá during his tour of Europe and North America in 1912. The list is not authoritative and a variety of such lists circulate.

:*The Oneness of God
:*The Oneness of religion
:*The Oneness of mankind
:*Equality of women and men
:*Elimination of all forms of prejudice
:*World peace
:*Harmony of religion and science
:*Independent investigation of truth
:*The need for universal compulsory education
:*The need for a universal auxiliary language
:*Obedience to government and non-involvement in politics
:*Elimination of extremes of wealth and poverty

The first three of this list are commonly referred to as the Three Onenesses, and form a fundamental part of Baha'i beliefs.

===Mystical Teachings===
The purpose of human life, say Bahá'ís, is spiritual growth. This is conceived almost as an organic process, like the development of a fetus, and continues after death. Rather than a heaven and hell strictly speaking (or reincarnation, for that matter), Bahá'ís teach an afterlife in which the soul may progress through ever-more-exalted spiritual realms.

Bahá'ís believe that while God's essence can never be fully fathomed, he can be understood through his "names and attributes." These are likened to gems and include such divine qualities as compassion or wisdom. Education (especially of a spiritual nature) reveals the divine gems which God has placed within our souls.

Bahá'u'lláh's Hidden Words, The Seven Valleys, and The Four Valleys are favorite mystical texts. Bahá'í spirituality tends to consist of textual study, prayer, and recitation. Monasticism is forbidden, and Bahá'ís attempt to ground their spirituality in ordinary daily life. Performing useful work, for example, is not only required but considered a form of worship.

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahai_faith Bahá'í Faith]''. Retrieved on July 16. 2005.

Bogomils

2005-07-15T23:37:55Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Bogomils''' was the name of an ancient [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] religious community which is thought to have originated in Macedonia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.

It is difficult to ascertain whether the name was taken from the reputed founder of that sect, a certain pope Bogumil or Bogomil, or whether he assumed that name after it had been given to the whole sect. The word is a direct translation into Slavonic of ''Massaliani'', the Syriac name of the sect corresponding to the Greek Euchites. The Bogomils are identified with the Massaliani in Slavonic documents of the 13th century. They are also known as ''Pavlikeni'', i.e. Paulicians. This name was derived from their respect for the apostle [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], rather than from their third leader, the Armenian Paul, as Photius and Petrus Siculus affirm.

It is a complicated task to determine the true character and the tenets of any ancient sect, considering that almost all the information that has reached us has come from their opponents. The [[heresy|heretical]] literature has to a great extent either perished or been completely changed; but much has also survived in a modified written form or through oral tradition. Concerning the Bogomils something can be gathered from the information collected by Euthymius Zygadenus in the 12th century, and from the polemic ''Against the Heretics'' written in Slavonic by St Kozma during the 10th century. The old Slavonic lists of forbidden books of the 15th and 16th century also give us a clue to the discovery of this heretical literature and of the means the Bogomils employed to carry on their propaganda. Much may also be learnt from the doctrines of the numerous heretical sects which arose in Ruthenia after the 11th century.

The Bogomils were without doubt the connecting link between the so-called heretical sects of the East and those of the West. They were, moreover, the most active agents in disseminating such teachings in Ruthenia and among all the nations of Europe. They may have found in some places a soil already prepared by more ancient tenets which had been preserved in spite of the persecution of the official Church, and handed down from the period of primitive Christianity. In the 12th and 13th century the Bogomils were already known in the West as "Bulgari." In 1207 the ''Bulgarorum heresis'' is mentioned. In 1223 the Albigenses are declared to be the local Bougres, and at the same period mention is made of the "Pope of the Albigenses who resided within the confines of Bulgaria." The [[Cathars]] and Patarenes, the Waldenses, the Anabaptists, and in Ruthenia the Strigolniki, Molokani and Doukhobors, have all at different times been either identified with the Bogomils or closely connected with them.

==Doctrine==
From the imperfect and conflicting data which are alone available one positive result can be gathered: that the Bogomils were both Adoptionists and [[Manichaeism|Manichaeans]]. They had accepted the teaching of Paul of Samosata, though at a later period the name of Paul was believed to be that of the Apostle; and they were not quite free from the Dualistic principle of the [[Gnostics]], at a later period too much identified with the teaching of [[Manes|Mani]], by Photius, Petrus Siculus, and other authors. Both Paulicians and Manichaeans were dualists, but the former ascribed the creation of the world to the evil God; the latter, to the good God; and the former held the Scriptures in higher honor. They even condemned Mani, comparing him to [[Buddha]]. They rejected the Christianity of the orthodox churches and did not accept the docetic teaching of some of the other sects. Taking as our starting-point the teaching of the heretical sects in Ruthenia, notably those of the [[14th century]], which are a direct continuation of the doctrines held by the Bogomils, we find that they denied the divine birth of [[Jesus|Christ]], the personal coexistence of the Son with the Father and [[Holy Ghost]], and the validity of sacraments and ceremonies. They rejected the title of theotokos (mother of God), and refused all veneration to Mary. The miracles performed by Jesus were interpreted in a spiritual sense, not as real material occurrences; the Church was the in-tenor spiritual church in which all held equal share. [[Baptism]] was only to be practised on grown men and women. The Bogomils repudiated infant baptism, and considered the baptismal rite to be of a spiritual character neither by water nor by oil but by self-abnegation, [[prayer]]s and [[chanting]] of hymns.

Karp Strigolnik, who in the 14th century preached the doctrine in Novgorod, explained that St Paul had taught that simpleminded men should instruct one another; therefore they elected their "teachers" from among themselves to be their spiritual guides, and had no special priests. Prayers were to be said in private houses, not in separate buildings such as churches. Ordination was conferred by the congregation and not by any specially appointed minister. The congregation were the "elect," and each member could obtain the perfection of Christ and become a Christ or "Chuist." Marriage was not a [[sacrament]]. The Bogomils refused to fast on Mondays and Fridays. They rejected monachism. They declared Christ to be the Son of God only through grace like other prophets, and that the bread and wine of the [[eucharist]] were not transformed into flesh and blood; that the last judgment would be executed by God and not by Jesus; that the images and the cross were idols and the veneration of saints and relics [[idolatry]].

These Paulician doctrines have survived in the great Ruthenian sects, and can be traced back to the teachings and practice of the Bogomils. But in addition to these doctrines of an adoptionist origin, they held the Manichaean dualistic conception of the origin of the world. This has been partly preserved in some of their literary remains, and has taken deep root in the beliefs and traditions of the Bulgarians, Macedonians and other nations with whom they had come into close contact. The chief literature of all the heretical sects throughout the ages has been that of apocryphal Biblical narratives, and the popes Jeremiah or Bogumil are directly mentioned as authors of such forbidden books "which no orthodox dare read." Though these writings are mostly the same in origin as are known from the older lists of apocryphal books, they underwent in this case a certain modification at the hands of their Bogomil editors, so as to be used for the propagation of their own specific doctrines.

In its most simple and attractive form--one at the same time invested with the authority of the reputed holy author--their account of the creation of the world and of man; the origin of sin and redemption, the history of the Cross, and the disputes between body and soul, right and wrong, heaven and hell, were embodied either in "Historiated Bibles" (''Palcyaf'') or in special dialogues held between Christ and his disciples, or between renowned Fathers of the Church who expounded these views in a simple manner adapted to the understanding of the people (''Lucidaria'').

The Bogomils taught that God had two sons, the elder Satanail and the younger Michael. The elder son rebelled against the father and became the evil spirit. After his fall he created the lower heavens and the earth and tried in vain to create man; in the end he had to appeal to God for the Spirit. After creation [[Adam]] was allowed to till the ground on condition that he sold himself and his posterity to the owner of the earth. Then Michael was sent in the form of a man; he became identified with Jesus, and was "elected" by God after the baptism in the Jordan. When the [[Holy Ghost]] (again Michael) appeared in the shape of the dove, Jesus received power to break the covenant in the form of a clay tablet (hierographon) held by Satanail from Adam. He had now become the angel Michael in a human form; as such he vanquished Satanail, and deprived him of the termination ''-il'' = God, in which his power resided. Satanail was thus transformed into Satan. Through his machinations the crucifixion took place, and [[Satan]] was the originator of the whole Orthodox community with its churches, vestments, ceremonies, sacraments and fasts, with its monks and priests. This world being the work of Satan, the perfect must eschew any and every excess of its pleasure. But the Bogomils did not go as far as to recommend [[asceticism]].

They held the "Lord's Prayer" in high respect as the most potent weapon against Satan, and had a number of conjurations against "evil spirits." Each community had its own twelve "apostles," and women could be raised to the rank of "elect." The Bogomils wore garments like mendicant friars and were known as keen missionaries, travelling far and wide to propagate their doctrines. Healing the sick and [[exorcising]] the [[evil spirit]], they traversed different countries and spread their apocryphal literature along with some of the books of the [[Old Testament]], deeply influencing the religious spirit of the nations, and preparing them for the Reformation. They accepted the four Gospels, fourteen Epistles of Paul, the three Epistles of John, James, Jude, and an Epistle to the Laodiceans, which they professed to have. They sowed the seeds of a rich religious popular literature in the East as well as in the West. The ''Historiated Bible'', the ''Letter from Heaven'', the ''Wanderings through Heaven and Hell'', the numerous Adam and Cross legends, the religious poems of the "''Kalflki perehozhie''" and other similar productions owe their dissemination to a large extent to the activity of the Bogomils of Bulgaria, and their successors in other lands.

==History==

The founder of the sect was a certain Constantine, who hailed from Mananalis, a dualistic community near Samosata. He studied the Gospels and Epistles, combined dualistic and [[Christianity|Christian]] doctrines, and, upon the basis of the former, vigorously opposed the formalism of the church. Regarding himself as called to restore the pure [[Christianity]] of Paul, he adopted the name Silvanus, one of Paul's disciples, and about the year 660 founded his first congregation at Kibossa in Armenia. Twenty-seven years afterwards he was stoned to death by order of the emperor. Simeon, the court official who executed the order, was himself converted, and, adopting the name Titus, became Constantine's successor, but was burned to death in 690 (the punishment pronounced upon the [[Manichaeism|Manichaeans]]). The adherents of the sect fled, with the Armenian Paul at their head, to Episparis. He died in 71], leaving two sons, Gegnaesius (whom he had appointed his successor) and Theodore. The latter, giving out that he had received the Holy Ghost, rose up against Gegnaesius, but was unsuccessful. Gegnaesius was taken to Constantinople, appeared before Emperor Leo III, was declared innocent of heresy, returned to Episparis, but, fearing danger, went with his adherents to Mananalis. His death (in 745) was the occasion of a division in the sect; Zacharias and Joseph being the leaders of the two parties. The latter had the larger following and was succeeded by Baanies, 775.

The sect grew in spite of persecution, receiving additions from the opponents of image-worship. The Bogomil propaganda follows the mountain chains of central Europe, starting from the Balkans and continuing along the Carpathian Mountains, the Alps and the Pyrenees, with ramifications north and south (Germany, England and Spain). In the middle of the 8th century the emperor Constantine Copronymus settled a number of Armenian Paulicians in Thrace. These were noted heretics and were persecuted by the Greek Church with fire and sword. Baanes, an immoral man, was supplanted by Sergius, 801, who was very active for thirty-four years, and received into the number of the saints. His activity was the occasion of renewed persecutions on the part of Emperor Leo V. Obliged to flee, Sergius and his followers settled at Argaum, in that part of Armenia which was under the control of the Saracens. At the death of Sergius, the control of the sect was divided between several leaders.

The empress Theodora killed, drowned or hanged no fewer than 100,000 Paulicians in Grecian Armenia. Under Karbeas, who fled with the residue of the sect, two cities, Amara and Tephrica, were built. His successor, Chrysocheres, devastated many cities; in 867 advanced as far as Ephesus, and took many priests prisoners. In 868 the emperor, Basil I, despatched Petrus Siculus to arrange for their exchange. His sojourn of nine months among the Paulicians gave him an opportunity to collect many facts, which he preserved in his ..." History of the empty and vain heresy of the Manichæans, otherwise called Paulicians"). The propositions of peace were not accepted, the war was renewed, and Chrysocheres killed. In 970 the emperor John Tzimisces, himself of Armenian origin, transplanted no less than 200,000 Armenian Paulicians to Europe and settled them in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis in Thrace, which henceforth became the centre of a far-reaching propaganda. Settled along the Balkans as a kind of bulwark against the invading Bulgars, the Armenians on the contrary soon fraternized with the newcomers, whom they converted to their own views; even a prince of the Bulgarians adopted their teaching. According to Slavonic documents the founder of this sect was a certain priest Bogumil, who "imbibed the Manichaean teaching and flourished at the time of the Bulgarian emperor Peter" (927-968). According to another source the founder was called Jeremiah (or there was another priest associated with him by the name of Jeremiah). This was the beginning of a revival of the sect, which proved loyal to the empire.

The Slavonic sources are unanimous on the point that his teaching was Manichaean. A ''Synodikon'' from the year 1210 adds the names of his pupils or "apostles," Mihail, Todur, Dobri, Stefan, Vasilie and Peter. Zealous missionaries carried their doctrines far and wide. In 1004, scarcely 25 years after the introduction of Christianity into Ruthenia, we hear of a priest Adrian teaching the same doctrines as the Bogomils. He was imprisoned by Leontie, Bishop of Kyiv. In 1125 the Church in the south of Ruthenia had to combat another heresiarch named Dmitri. The Church in Bulgaria also tried to extirpate Bogomilism. Several thousand went in the army of Alexius Comnenus against the Norman, Robert Guiscard; but, deserting the emperor, many of them (1085) were thrown into prison. Efforts were again put forth for their conversion; and for the converts the new city of Alexiopolis was built, opposite Philippopolis. When the [[Fourth Crusade|Crusaders]] took Constantinople (1204), they found some Paulicians, whom the historian Geoffrey of Villehardouin calls Popelicans. The popes in Rome whilst leading the [[Albigensian Crusade|Crusade against the Albigenses]] did not forget their counterpart in the Balkans and recommended the annihilation of the heretics.

The Bogomils spread westwards, and settled first in Serbia; but at the end of the 12th century Stephen Nemanya, king of Serbia, persecuted them and expelled them from the country. Large numbers took refuge in Bosnia, where they were known under the name of Patarenes or Patareni. There they were also brought into connection with the indigenous Bosnian Church, which was also considered heretical by the Pope and the Byzantium, but was not actually Bogomil in nature. From Bosnia their influence extended into Italy (Piedmont). The Hungarians undertook many crusades against the heretics in Bosnia, but towards the close of the 15th century the conquest of that country by the Turks put an end to their persecution. It is alleged that a large number of the Bosnian Paterenes, and especially the nobles, embraced [[Islam]]. Few or no remnants of Bogomilism have survived in Bosnia. The Ritual in Slavonic written by the Bosnian Radoslav, and published in vol. xv. of the ''Starine of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram'', shows great resemblance to the [[Cathar]] ritual published by Cunitz, 1853. See F Rački, "Bogomili i Paternai" in Rad, vols. vii., viii. and x. (Agram, 1870); Dollinger, Beiträge zur Ketzergeschichte des Mittelalters, 2 vols. (Munich, 1890).

Under Turkish rule the Bogomils lived unmolested as Pavlikeni in their ancient stronghold near Philippopolis, and farther northward. In 1650 the Roman Catholic Church gathered them into its fold. No less than fourteen villages near Nicopolis embraced Catholicism, and a colony of Pavlikeni in the village of Cioplea near [ucharest followed the example of their brethren across the Danube.

In the 18th century the Pavlikeni people from around Nicopolis were persecuted by the Turks, presumably on religious grounds, and a good part of them fled across the Danube into, what is today, Romania. They settled in the Banat region that was under the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the time. There are still over ten thousant Pavlikeni in Banat today in the villages of Dudestii Vechi, Vinga, Brestea and also in the city of Timisoara and a few in Arad. There is also a village of Pavlikeni in the Serbian Banat called Ivanovo.

== External link ==

* [http://www.rastko.org.yu/istorija/bogumili/djcapin-bogumili_e.html Myth about Bogomils]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogomils Bogomils]''. Retrieved on July 15. 2005.

Bogomils

2005-07-15T10:02:35Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Bogomils''' was the name of an ancient [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] religious community which is thought to have originated in Macedonia and Bosnia-Herzegovina.

It is difficult to ascertain whether the name was taken from the reputed founder of that sect, a certain pope Bogumil or Bogomil, or whether he assumed that name after it had been given to the whole sect. The word is a direct translation into Slavonic of ''Massaliani'', the Syriac name of the sect corresponding to the Greek Euchites. The Bogomils are identified with the Massaliani in Slavonic documents of the 13th century. They are also known as ''Pavlikeni'', i.e. Paulicians. This name was derived from their respect for the apostle [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], rather than from their third leader, the Armenian Paul, as Photius and Petrus Siculus affirm.

It is a complicated task to determine the true character and the tenets of any ancient sect, considering that almost all the information that has reached us has come from their opponents. The [[heresy|heretical]] literature has to a great extent either perished or been completely changed; but much has also survived in a modified written form or through oral tradition. Concerning the Bogomils something can be gathered from the information collected by Euthymius Zygadenus in the 12th century, and from the polemic ''Against the Heretics'' written in Slavonic by St Kozma during the 10th century. The old Slavonic lists of forbidden books of the 15th and 16th century also give us a clue to the discovery of this heretical literature and of the means the Bogomils employed to carry on their propaganda. Much may also be learnt from the doctrines of the numerous heretical sects which arose in Ruthenia after the 11th century.

The Bogomils were without doubt the connecting link between the so-called heretical sects of the East and those of the West. They were, moreover, the most active agents in disseminating such teachings in [[Ruthenia]] and among all the nations of Europe. They may have found in some places a soil already prepared by more ancient tenets which had been preserved in spite of the persecution of the official Church, and handed down from the period of [[primitive Christianity]]. In the 12th and 13th century the Bogomils were already known in the West as "Bulgari." In 1207 the ''Bulgarorum heresis'' is mentioned. In 1223 the Albigenses are declared to be the local Bougres, and at the same period mention is made of the "Pope of the Albigenses who resided within the confines of Bulgaria." The [[Cathars]] and Patarenes, the Waldenses, the Anabaptists, and in Ruthenia the Strigolniki, Molokani and Doukhobors, have all at different times been either identified with the Bogomils or closely connected with them.

==Doctrine==
From the imperfect and conflicting data which are alone available one positive result can be gathered: that the Bogomils were both Adoptionists and [[Manichaeism|Manichaeans]]. They had accepted the teaching of Paul of Samosata, though at a later period the name of Paul was believed to be that of the Apostle; and they were not quite free from the Dualistic principle of the [[Gnostics]], at a later period too much identified with the teaching of [[Manes|Mani]], by Photius, Petrus Siculus, and other authors. Both Paulicians and Manichaeans were dualists, but the former ascribed the creation of the world to the evil God; the latter, to the good God; and the former held the Scriptures in higher honor. They even condemned Mani, comparing him to [[Buddha]]. They rejected the Christianity of the orthodox churches and did not accept the docetic teaching of some of the other sects. Taking as our starting-point the teaching of the heretical sects in Ruthenia, notably those of the [[14th century]], which are a direct continuation of the doctrines held by the Bogomils, we find that they denied the divine birth of [[Jesus|Christ]], the personal coexistence of the Son with the Father and [[Holy Ghost]], and the validity of sacraments and ceremonies. They rejected the title of theotokos (mother of God), and refused all veneration to Mary. The miracles performed by Jesus were interpreted in a spiritual sense, not as real material occurrences; the Church was the in-tenor spiritual church in which all held equal share. [[Baptism]] was only to be practised on grown men and women. The Bogomils repudiated infant baptism, and considered the baptismal rite to be of a spiritual character neither by water nor by oil but by self-abnegation, [[prayer]]s and [[chanting]] of hymns.

Karp Strigolnik, who in the 14th century preached the doctrine in Novgorod, explained that St Paul had taught that simpleminded men should instruct one another; therefore they elected their "teachers" from among themselves to be their spiritual guides, and had no special priests. Prayers were to be said in private houses, not in separate buildings such as churches. Ordination was conferred by the congregation and not by any specially appointed minister. The congregation were the "elect," and each member could obtain the perfection of Christ and become a Christ or "Chuist." Marriage was not a [[sacrament]]. The Bogomils refused to fast on Mondays and Fridays. They rejected monachism. They declared Christ to be the Son of God only through grace like other prophets, and that the bread and wine of the [[eucharist]] were not transformed into flesh and blood; that the last judgment would be executed by God and not by Jesus; that the images and the cross were idols and the veneration of saints and relics [[idolatry]].

These Paulician doctrines have survived in the great Ruthenian sects, and can be traced back to the teachings and practice of the Bogomils. But in addition to these doctrines of an adoptionist origin, they held the Manichaean dualistic conception of the origin of the world. This has been partly preserved in some of their literary remains, and has taken deep root in the beliefs and traditions of the Bulgarians, Macedonians and other nations with whom they had come into close contact. The chief literature of all the heretical sects throughout the ages has been that of apocryphal Biblical narratives, and the popes Jeremiah or Bogumil are directly mentioned as authors of such forbidden books "which no orthodox dare read." Though these writings are mostly the same in origin as are known from the older lists of apocryphal books, they underwent in this case a certain modification at the hands of their Bogomil editors, so as to be used for the propagation of their own specific doctrines.

In its most simple and attractive form--one at the same time invested with the authority of the reputed holy author--their account of the creation of the world and of man; the origin of sin and redemption, the history of the Cross, and the disputes between body and soul, right and wrong, heaven and hell, were embodied either in "Historiated Bibles" (''Palcyaf'') or in special dialogues held between Christ and his disciples, or between renowned Fathers of the Church who expounded these views in a simple manner adapted to the understanding of the people (''Lucidaria'').

The Bogomils taught that God had two sons, the elder Satanail and the younger Michael. The elder son rebelled against the father and became the evil spirit. After his fall he created the lower heavens and the earth and tried in vain to create man; in the end he had to appeal to God for the Spirit. After creation [[Adam]] was allowed to till the ground on condition that he sold himself and his posterity to the owner of the earth. Then Michael was sent in the form of a man; he became identified with Jesus, and was "elected" by God after the baptism in the Jordan. When the [[Holy Ghost]] (again Michael) appeared in the shape of the dove, Jesus received power to break the covenant in the form of a clay tablet (hierographon) held by Satanail from Adam. He had now become the angel Michael in a human form; as such he vanquished Satanail, and deprived him of the termination ''-il'' = God, in which his power resided. Satanail was thus transformed into Satan. Through his machinations the crucifixion took place, and [[Satan]] was the originator of the whole Orthodox community with its churches, vestments, ceremonies, sacraments and fasts, with its monks and priests. This world being the work of Satan, the perfect must eschew any and every excess of its pleasure. But the Bogomils did not go as far as to recommend [[asceticism]].

They held the "Lord's Prayer" in high respect as the most potent weapon against Satan, and had a number of conjurations against "evil spirits." Each community had its own twelve "apostles," and women could be raised to the rank of "elect." The Bogomils wore garments like mendicant friars and were known as keen missionaries, travelling far and wide to propagate their doctrines. Healing the sick and [[exorcising]] the [[evil spirit]], they traversed different countries and spread their apocryphal literature along with some of the books of the [[Old Testament]], deeply influencing the religious spirit of the nations, and preparing them for the Reformation. They accepted the four Gospels, fourteen Epistles of Paul, the three Epistles of John, James, Jude, and an Epistle to the Laodiceans, which they professed to have. They sowed the seeds of a rich religious popular literature in the East as well as in the West. The ''Historiated Bible'', the ''Letter from Heaven'', the ''Wanderings through Heaven and Hell'', the numerous Adam and Cross legends, the religious poems of the "''Kalflki perehozhie''" and other similar productions owe their dissemination to a large extent to the activity of the Bogomils of Bulgaria, and their successors in other lands.

==History==

The founder of the sect was a certain Constantine, who hailed from Mananalis, a dualistic community near Samosata. He studied the Gospels and Epistles, combined dualistic and [[Christianity|Christian]] doctrines, and, upon the basis of the former, vigorously opposed the formalism of the church. Regarding himself as called to restore the pure [[Christianity]] of Paul, he adopted the name Silvanus, one of Paul's disciples, and about the year 660 founded his first congregation at Kibossa in Armenia. Twenty-seven years afterwards he was stoned to death by order of the emperor. Simeon, the court official who executed the order, was himself converted, and, adopting the name Titus, became Constantine's successor, but was burned to death in 690 (the punishment pronounced upon the [[Manichaeism|Manichaeans]]). The adherents of the sect fled, with the Armenian Paul at their head, to Episparis. He died in 71], leaving two sons, Gegnaesius (whom he had appointed his successor) and Theodore. The latter, giving out that he had received the Holy Ghost, rose up against Gegnaesius, but was unsuccessful. Gegnaesius was taken to Constantinople, appeared before Emperor Leo III, was declared innocent of heresy, returned to Episparis, but, fearing danger, went with his adherents to Mananalis. His death (in 745) was the occasion of a division in the sect; Zacharias and Joseph being the leaders of the two parties. The latter had the larger following and was succeeded by Baanies, 775.

The sect grew in spite of persecution, receiving additions from the opponents of image-worship. The Bogomil propaganda follows the mountain chains of central Europe, starting from the Balkans and continuing along the Carpathian Mountains, the Alps and the Pyrenees, with ramifications north and south (Germany, England and Spain). In the middle of the 8th century the emperor Constantine Copronymus settled a number of Armenian Paulicians in Thrace. These were noted heretics and were persecuted by the Greek Church with fire and sword. Baanes, an immoral man, was supplanted by Sergius, 801, who was very active for thirty-four years, and received into the number of the saints. His activity was the occasion of renewed persecutions on the part of Emperor Leo V. Obliged to flee, Sergius and his followers settled at Argaum, in that part of Armenia which was under the control of the Saracens. At the death of Sergius, the control of the sect was divided between several leaders.

The empress Theodora killed, drowned or hanged no fewer than 100,000 Paulicians in Grecian Armenia. Under Karbeas, who fled with the residue of the sect, two cities, Amara and Tephrica, were built. His successor, Chrysocheres, devastated many cities; in 867 advanced as far as Ephesus, and took many priests prisoners. In 868 the emperor, Basil I, despatched Petrus Siculus to arrange for their exchange. His sojourn of nine months among the Paulicians gave him an opportunity to collect many facts, which he preserved in his ..." History of the empty and vain heresy of the Manichæans, otherwise called Paulicians"). The propositions of peace were not accepted, the war was renewed, and Chrysocheres killed. In 970 the emperor John Tzimisces, himself of Armenian origin, transplanted no less than 200,000 Armenian Paulicians to Europe and settled them in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis in Thrace, which henceforth became the centre of a far-reaching propaganda. Settled along the Balkans as a kind of bulwark against the invading Bulgars, the Armenians on the contrary soon fraternized with the newcomers, whom they converted to their own views; even a prince of the Bulgarians adopted their teaching. According to Slavonic documents the founder of this sect was a certain priest Bogumil, who "imbibed the Manichaean teaching and flourished at the time of the Bulgarian emperor Peter" (927-968). According to another source the founder was called Jeremiah (or there was another priest associated with him by the name of Jeremiah). This was the beginning of a revival of the sect, which proved loyal to the empire.

The Slavonic sources are unanimous on the point that his teaching was Manichaean. A ''Synodikon'' from the year 1210 adds the names of his pupils or "apostles," Mihail, Todur, Dobri, Stefan, Vasilie and Peter. Zealous missionaries carried their doctrines far and wide. In 1004, scarcely 25 years after the introduction of Christianity into Ruthenia, we hear of a priest Adrian teaching the same doctrines as the Bogomils. He was imprisoned by Leontie, Bishop of Kyiv. In 1125 the Church in the south of Ruthenia had to combat another heresiarch named Dmitri. The Church in Bulgaria also tried to extirpate Bogomilism. Several thousand went in the army of Alexius Comnenus against the Norman, Robert Guiscard; but, deserting the emperor, many of them (1085) were thrown into prison. Efforts were again put forth for their conversion; and for the converts the new city of Alexiopolis was built, opposite Philippopolis. When the [[Fourth Crusade|Crusaders]] took Constantinople (1204), they found some Paulicians, whom the historian Geoffrey of Villehardouin calls Popelicans. The popes in Rome whilst leading the [[Albigensian Crusade|Crusade against the Albigenses]] did not forget their counterpart in the Balkans and recommended the annihilation of the heretics.

The Bogomils spread westwards, and settled first in Serbia; but at the end of the 12th century Stephen Nemanya, king of Serbia, persecuted them and expelled them from the country. Large numbers took refuge in Bosnia, where they were known under the name of Patarenes or Patareni. There they were also brought into connection with the indigenous Bosnian Church, which was also considered heretical by the Pope and the Byzantium, but was not actually Bogomil in nature. From Bosnia their influence extended into Italy (Piedmont). The Hungarians undertook many crusades against the heretics in Bosnia, but towards the close of the 15th century the conquest of that country by the Turks put an end to their persecution. It is alleged that a large number of the Bosnian Paterenes, and especially the nobles, embraced [[Islam]]. Few or no remnants of Bogomilism have survived in Bosnia. The Ritual in Slavonic written by the Bosnian Radoslav, and published in vol. xv. of the ''Starine of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram'', shows great resemblance to the [[Cathar]] ritual published by Cunitz, 1853. See F Rački, "Bogomili i Paternai" in Rad, vols. vii., viii. and x. (Agram, 1870); Dollinger, Beiträge zur Ketzergeschichte des Mittelalters, 2 vols. (Munich, 1890).

Under Turkish rule the Bogomils lived unmolested as Pavlikeni in their ancient stronghold near Philippopolis, and farther northward. In 1650 the Roman Catholic Church gathered them into its fold. No less than fourteen villages near Nicopolis embraced Catholicism, and a colony of Pavlikeni in the village of Cioplea near [ucharest followed the example of their brethren across the Danube.

In the 18th century the Pavlikeni people from around Nicopolis were persecuted by the Turks, presumably on religious grounds, and a good part of them fled across the Danube into, what is today, Romania. They settled in the Banat region that was under the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the time. There are still over ten thousant Pavlikeni in Banat today in the villages of Dudestii Vechi, Vinga, Brestea and also in the city of Timisoara and a few in Arad. There is also a village of Pavlikeni in the Serbian Banat called Ivanovo.

== External link ==

* [http://www.rastko.org.yu/istorija/bogumili/djcapin-bogumili_e.html Myth about Bogomils]

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bogomils Bogomils]''. Retrieved on July 15. 2005.

Cathar

2005-07-15T09:44:46Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Catharism''' was a movement with [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] elements that originated around the middle of the 10th century, branded by the contemporary Roman Catholic Church as [[heresy|heretical]]. It existed throughout much of Western Europe, but its home was in Languedoc and surrounding areas in southern France.

The name ''Cathar'' most likely originated from Greek ''catharos'', "the pure ones". One of the first recorded uses is Eckbert von Schönau who wrote on heretics from Cologne in 1181: "Hos nostra germania catharos appellat."

The Cathars are also called '''Albigensians'''. This name originates from the end of the 12th century, and was used by the chronicler Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois in 1181. The name refers to the southern town of Albi (the ancient Albiga). The designation is hardly exact, for the centre was at Toulouse and in the neighbouring districts.

==Origins==
The beliefs came originally from Eastern Europe by way of trade routes. The name of Bulgarians (Bougres) was also applied to the Albigenses, and they maintained an association with the [[Bogomils]] of Thrace. Their doctrines have numerous resemblances to those of the Bogomils, and still more to those of the Paulicians, with whom they are also sometimes connected. It is difficult to form any precise idea of the Cathar doctrines, as all the existing knowledge of them is derived from their opponents, and the few texts from the Cathars (the ''Rituel Cathare de Lyon'' and the ''Nouveau Testament en Provencal'') contain very little information concerning their beliefs and moral practices. What is certain is that they formed an anti-sacerdotal party in opposition to the Catholic Church, and raised a continued protest against perceived corruption of the clergy. The Cathar theologians, called Cathari or perfecti by their Catholic executioners and judges, were known to themselves, their followers and even their co-citizens as 'bons hommes' or 'bons chretiens', literally 'good men' or 'good christians', were few in number; the mass of believers (''credentes'') were not initiated into the doctrine at all - they were allegedly freed from all moral prohibition and all religious obligation, on condition that they promised by an act called ''convenenza'' to become "hereticized" by receiving the ''consolamentum'', the baptism of the Spirit, before their death.

The first French Cathars appeared in Limousin between 1012 and 1020. Several were discovered and put to death at Toulouse in 1022. The synods of Charroux (Vienne) (1028) and Toulouse (1056) condemned the growing sect. Preachers were summoned to the districts of the Agenais and the Toulousain to combat the Cathar doctrine in the 1100s. The Cathars, however, gained ground in the south thanks to the protection given by William, Duke of Aquitaine, and a significant proportion of the southern nobility. The people were impressed by the ''bons hommes'', and the anti-sacerdotal preaching of Peter of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne in Perigord.

==Beliefs==
Catharism was based on the idea that the world was evil. This was a distinct feature of older versions of [[Gnosticism]] and [[Neoplatonism]], such as [[Manichaeism]] and the theology of the [[Bogomils]], and the appearance of this idea in Catharism was probably due to the influence of these older Gnostic lines of thought. According to the Cathars, the world had been created by an evil deity known to the Gnostics as the [[Demiurge]]. The Cathars identified the Demiurge with the being the [[Christianity|Christians]] called [[Satan]]. Earlier Gnostics, however, did not identify the Demiurge with Satan.

The Cathars also believed that souls would be [[reincarnation|reborn]] when they escaped the material world and succeeded to the immaterial heaven. The way to escape was to live an [[ascetic]]'s life, and to be not corrupted by the world. Those that did live this life were called 'Perfects' (Parfaits). They had the power to wipe away a person's sins and connections to the material world, so that they would go to heaven when they died. The Perfects themselves lived lives of unimpeachable frugality, in stark contrast to those that lived within the corrupt and opulent church of the time. Commonly, the wiping away of sin, called the ''consolamentum'', was performed on someone about to die. After receiving this, the believer would almost always stop eating, so that they could die faster, and with less taint from the world. The ''consolamentum'' was the only [[sacrament]] of the Cathar faith. They did not perform any rite of marriage, as procreation (bringing more souls into the world) was frowned upon. It was as a result of this particular belief that the term "buggery" was coined (after the 'Bulgars', or 'Bougres') since if they were to give in to sexual temptation, this would at least ensure that no children resulted.

The Cathars also held many beliefs that were odious to the rest of medieval society. They did not believe in the doctrine of the Trinity claiming it was an invention of the Roman Catholic Church. The Catharist concept of Jesus resembled modalistic monarchianism in the West and adoptionism in the East. The Western concept resembled the Oneness doctrine of the nature of God taught by Oneness Pentecostals and Swedenborgians today. Most Cathars, however, believed that [[Jesus]] had been an apparition, a ghost, that showed the way to [[God]]. They refused to believe that the good God could or would come in material form, since all physical objects were tainted by sin. This specific belief is called docetism. Furthermore, they believed that the God of the [[Old Testament]] was the Devil, since he had created the world. They also did not believe in any sacrament except the ''consolamentum'', which was another major heresy.

Women were treated as equals, because their physical form was irrelevant; their soul could have been a man's soul before, and it might once again become one.

Cathar Perfects were also vegetarians. They were required to avoid eating anything considered to be a by-product of sexual reproduction, including cheese, eggs, milk and butter. Having said this, they were allowed to eat fish, as little was then known about the mating habits of marine creatures which were generally believed to simply appear spontaneously in the sea.

One of their ideas most heretical to feudal Europe was the belief that oaths were a sin, because they attached you to the world. To call them a sin in this manner was very dangerous in a society where illiteracy was wide-spread and almost all business transactions and pledges of allegiance were based on oaths.

==Suppression==

In 1147, Pope Eugene III sent a legate to the affected district in order to arrest the progress of the Cathars. The few isolated successes of Bernard of Clairvaux could not obscure the poor results of this mission, and well shows the power of the sect in the south of France at that period. The missions of Cardinal Peter (of St Chrysogonus) to Toulouse and the Toulousain in 1178, and of Henry, cardinal-bishop of Albano, in 1180-1181, obtained merely momentary successes. Henry of Albano's armed expedition, where he took the stronghold at Lavaur, did not extinguish the movement.

The persistent decisions of the councils against the Cathars at this period — in particular, those of the Council of Tours (1163) and of the Third Council of the Lateran (1179) — had scarcely more effect. By the time Pope Innocent III came to power in 1198, he had resolved to suppress the Albigenses.

At first he tried pacific conversion, and sent a number of legates into the affected regions. They had to contend not only with the Cathars, the nobles who protected them, and the people who venerated them, but also with the bishops of the district, who rejected the extraordinary authority which the Pope had conferred upon his legates. In 1204 Innocent III suspended the authority of the bishops in the south of France. Papal legate Peter of Castelnau, known for excommunicating the noblemen who protected the Cathars, retaliated in 1207 by excommunicating the Count of Toulouse, as an abettor of heresy. He was murdered near Saint Gilles Abbey in 1208 on his way back to Rome, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, "probably at the connivance of Raymond VI, count of Toulouse". As soon as he heard of the murder of Peter of Castelnau, the Pope ordered his legates to preach the [[Albigensian Crusade]] against the Cathars.

This war threw the whole of the nobility of the north of France against that of the south, possibly instigated by a papal decree stating that all land owned by Cathars could be confiscated at will. As the area was full of Cathar sympathisers, this made the entire area a target for northern nobles looking to gain new lands. It is thus hardly surprising that the barons of the north flocked south to do battle for the Church.

In one famous incident in 1209, most of Béziers was slaughtered by the Catholic forces headed by the Papal legate. Arnaud-Amaury, the Abbot of Citeaux, was asked how to distinguish between the Catholic and Cathars, and allegedly answered, "Kill them all, God will know his own". The Catholic Encyclopedia denies these words were ever spoken.

The war also involved Peter II, the king of Aragon, who owned fiefdoms and had vassals in the area. Peter died fighting against the crusade on September 12, 1213 at the Battle of Muret.

The war ended in the treaty of Paris (1229), by which the king of France dispossessed the house of Toulouse of the greater part of its fiefs, and that of Beziers of the whole of its fiefs. The independence of the princes of the south was at an end. But in spite of the wholesale massacre of Cathars during the war, Catharism was not extinguished.

In 1215, the bishops of the Catholic Church met at the Fourth Council of the Lateran under Pope Innocent. One of the key goals of the council was to combat heresy.

The Inquisition was established in 1229 to root out the Cathars. Operating in the south at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns during the whole of the 13th century and a great part of the 14th, it succeeded in extirpating the movement. From May 1243 to March 1244, the Cathar citadel of Montségur was besieged by the troops of the seneschal of Carcassonne and the archbishop of Narbonne. On March 16 1244 a large and symbolically important execution took place, where leaders of Catharism together with more than 200 Cathar laity were thrown into an enormous fire at the ''prat des cramats'' near the foot of the castle. Moreover, the church decreed severe chastisement against all laymen suspected of sympathy with Cathars (Council of Narbonne, 1235; Bull Ad extirpanda, 1252).

Hunted down by the Inquisition and abandoned by the nobles of the district, the Albigenses became more and more scattered, hiding in the forests and mountains, and only meeting surreptitiously. The people made some attempts to overthrow the Inquisition and the French, and insurrections broke out under the leadership of Bernard of Foix, Aimerv of Narbonne and Bernard Délicieux at the beginning of the 14th century. But at this point vast inquests were set on foot by the Inquisition, which increased its efforts in the district. Precise indications of these are found in the registers of the Inquisitors, Bernard of Caux, Jean de St Pierre, Geoffroy d'Ablis, and others. The sect was exhausted and could find no more adepts and after 1330 the records of the Inquisition contain few proceedings against Cathars. The last Cathar Perfect, Guillaume Bélibaste, was executed in 1321. Other heretical movements, such as the anti-trinitarian [[Waldensians]] and the pantheistic [[Brethren of the Free Spirit]] survived into the 14th and 15th century, until they were gradually replaced by early Protestant sects, such as the Hussites.

==Influences==

*[[Christian Rosencreutz]], according to some, may have been associated with an underground Cathar movement that hid from the Inquisition. However, this is highly unlikely because there is absolutely no evidence that the Cathar movement still existed by Rosencreuz' time, nor is there any concrete evidence that Rosencreuz existed at all.

==The Holy Grail==

It has been suggested in some modern fiction and non-fiction books that the Cathars could have been the protectors of the [[Holy Grail]] of Christian mythology, especially in the book Holy Blood, Holy Grail, although modern investigation into this book has largely discredited its findings.

==Visigoths==

Visigoths had settled in the region described as central to Catharism, which separated the political ideology from the Frankish northern provinces or Burgundy. The Crusade to rid Christendom of Cathars was a synonym for eradicating the last remnants of Arianism. The disparity between religious practices had not only been between the Visigoths of Toulouse and Franks of Paris, because Burgundy's Geneva would later erupt in Calvinism with opposition by the Franks at that time as well.

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathar Cathar]''. Retrieved on July 15. 2005.

Cathar

2005-07-15T09:43:43Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Catharism''' was a movement with [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] elements that originated around the middle of the 10th century, branded by the contemporary Roman Catholic Church as [[heresy|heretical]]. It existed throughout much of Western Europe, but its home was in Languedoc and surrounding areas in southern France.

The name ''Cathar'' most likely originated from Greek ''catharos'', "the pure ones". One of the first recorded uses is Eckbert von Schönau who wrote on heretics from Cologne in 1181: "Hos nostra germania catharos appellat."

The Cathars are also called '''Albigensians'''. This name originates from the end of the 12th century, and was used by the chronicler Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois in 1181. The name refers to the southern town of Albi (the ancient Albiga). The designation is hardly exact, for the centre was at Toulouse and in the neighbouring districts.

==Origins==
The beliefs came originally from Eastern Europe by way of trade routes. The name of Bulgarians (Bougres) was also applied to the Albigenses, and they maintained an association with the [[Bogomils]] of Thrace. Their doctrines have numerous resemblances to those of the Bogomils, and still more to those of the Paulicians, with whom they are also sometimes connected. It is difficult to form any precise idea of the Cathar doctrines, as all the existing knowledge of them is derived from their opponents, and the few texts from the Cathars (the ''Rituel Cathare de Lyon'' and the ''Nouveau Testament en Provencal'') contain very little information concerning their beliefs and moral practices. What is certain is that they formed an anti-sacerdotal party in opposition to the Catholic Church, and raised a continued protest against perceived corruption of the clergy. The Cathar theologians, called Cathari or perfecti by their Catholic executioners and judges, were known to themselves, their followers and even their co-citizens as 'bons hommes' or 'bons chretiens', literally 'good men' or 'good christians', were few in number; the mass of believers (''credentes'') were not initiated into the doctrine at all - they were allegedly freed from all moral prohibition and all religious obligation, on condition that they promised by an act called ''convenenza'' to become "hereticized" by receiving the ''consolamentum'', the baptism of the Spirit, before their death.

The first French Cathars appeared in Limousin between 1012 and 1020. Several were discovered and put to death at Toulouse in 1022. The synods of Charroux (Vienne) (1028) and Toulouse (1056) condemned the growing sect. Preachers were summoned to the districts of the Agenais and the Toulousain to combat the Cathar doctrine in the 1100s. The Cathars, however, gained ground in the south thanks to the protection given by William, Duke of Aquitaine, and a significant proportion of the southern nobility. The people were impressed by the ''bons hommes'', and the anti-sacerdotal preaching of Peter of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne in Perigord.

==Beliefs==
Catharism was based on the idea that the world was evil. This was a distinct feature of older versions of [[Gnosticism]] and [[Neoplatonism]], such as [[Manicheanism]] and the theology of the [[Bogomils]], and the appearance of this idea in Catharism was probably due to the influence of these older Gnostic lines of thought. According to the Cathars, the world had been created by an evil deity known to the Gnostics as the [[Demiurge]]. The Cathars identified the Demiurge with the being the [[Christianity|Christians]] called [[Satan]]. Earlier Gnostics, however, did not identify the Demiurge with Satan.

The Cathars also believed that souls would be [[reincarnation|reborn]] when they escaped the material world and succeeded to the immaterial heaven. The way to escape was to live an [[ascetic]]'s life, and to be not corrupted by the world. Those that did live this life were called 'Perfects' (Parfaits). They had the power to wipe away a person's sins and connections to the material world, so that they would go to heaven when they died. The Perfects themselves lived lives of unimpeachable frugality, in stark contrast to those that lived within the corrupt and opulent church of the time. Commonly, the wiping away of sin, called the ''consolamentum'', was performed on someone about to die. After receiving this, the believer would almost always stop eating, so that they could die faster, and with less taint from the world. The ''consolamentum'' was the only [[sacrament]] of the Cathar faith. They did not perform any rite of marriage, as procreation (bringing more souls into the world) was frowned upon. It was as a result of this particular belief that the term "buggery" was coined (after the 'Bulgars', or 'Bougres') since if they were to give in to sexual temptation, this would at least ensure that no children resulted.

The Cathars also held many beliefs that were odious to the rest of medieval society. They did not believe in the doctrine of the Trinity claiming it was an invention of the Roman Catholic Church. The Catharist concept of Jesus resembled modalistic monarchianism in the West and adoptionism in the East. The Western concept resembled the Oneness doctrine of the nature of God taught by Oneness Pentecostals and Swedenborgians today. Most Cathars, however, believed that [[Jesus]] had been an apparition, a ghost, that showed the way to [[God]]. They refused to believe that the good God could or would come in material form, since all physical objects were tainted by sin. This specific belief is called docetism. Furthermore, they believed that the God of the [[Old Testament]] was the Devil, since he had created the world. They also did not believe in any sacrament except the ''consolamentum'', which was another major heresy.

Women were treated as equals, because their physical form was irrelevant; their soul could have been a man's soul before, and it might once again become one.

Cathar Perfects were also vegetarians. They were required to avoid eating anything considered to be a by-product of sexual reproduction, including cheese, eggs, milk and butter. Having said this, they were allowed to eat fish, as little was then known about the mating habits of marine creatures which were generally believed to simply appear spontaneously in the sea.

One of their ideas most heretical to feudal Europe was the belief that oaths were a sin, because they attached you to the world. To call them a sin in this manner was very dangerous in a society where illiteracy was wide-spread and almost all business transactions and pledges of allegiance were based on oaths.

==Suppression==

In 1147, Pope Eugene III sent a legate to the affected district in order to arrest the progress of the Cathars. The few isolated successes of Bernard of Clairvaux could not obscure the poor results of this mission, and well shows the power of the sect in the south of France at that period. The missions of Cardinal Peter (of St Chrysogonus) to Toulouse and the Toulousain in 1178, and of Henry, cardinal-bishop of Albano, in 1180-1181, obtained merely momentary successes. Henry of Albano's armed expedition, where he took the stronghold at Lavaur, did not extinguish the movement.

The persistent decisions of the councils against the Cathars at this period — in particular, those of the Council of Tours (1163) and of the Third Council of the Lateran (1179) — had scarcely more effect. By the time Pope Innocent III came to power in 1198, he had resolved to suppress the Albigenses.

At first he tried pacific conversion, and sent a number of legates into the affected regions. They had to contend not only with the Cathars, the nobles who protected them, and the people who venerated them, but also with the bishops of the district, who rejected the extraordinary authority which the Pope had conferred upon his legates. In 1204 Innocent III suspended the authority of the bishops in the south of France. Papal legate Peter of Castelnau, known for excommunicating the noblemen who protected the Cathars, retaliated in 1207 by excommunicating the Count of Toulouse, as an abettor of heresy. He was murdered near Saint Gilles Abbey in 1208 on his way back to Rome, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, "probably at the connivance of Raymond VI, count of Toulouse". As soon as he heard of the murder of Peter of Castelnau, the Pope ordered his legates to preach the [[Albigensian Crusade]] against the Cathars.

This war threw the whole of the nobility of the north of France against that of the south, possibly instigated by a papal decree stating that all land owned by Cathars could be confiscated at will. As the area was full of Cathar sympathisers, this made the entire area a target for northern nobles looking to gain new lands. It is thus hardly surprising that the barons of the north flocked south to do battle for the Church.

In one famous incident in 1209, most of Béziers was slaughtered by the Catholic forces headed by the Papal legate. Arnaud-Amaury, the Abbot of Citeaux, was asked how to distinguish between the Catholic and Cathars, and allegedly answered, "Kill them all, God will know his own". The Catholic Encyclopedia denies these words were ever spoken.

The war also involved Peter II, the king of Aragon, who owned fiefdoms and had vassals in the area. Peter died fighting against the crusade on September 12, 1213 at the Battle of Muret.

The war ended in the treaty of Paris (1229), by which the king of France dispossessed the house of Toulouse of the greater part of its fiefs, and that of Beziers of the whole of its fiefs. The independence of the princes of the south was at an end. But in spite of the wholesale massacre of Cathars during the war, Catharism was not extinguished.

In 1215, the bishops of the Catholic Church met at the Fourth Council of the Lateran under Pope Innocent. One of the key goals of the council was to combat heresy.

The Inquisition was established in 1229 to root out the Cathars. Operating in the south at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns during the whole of the 13th century and a great part of the 14th, it succeeded in extirpating the movement. From May 1243 to March 1244, the Cathar citadel of Montségur was besieged by the troops of the seneschal of Carcassonne and the archbishop of Narbonne. On March 16 1244 a large and symbolically important execution took place, where leaders of Catharism together with more than 200 Cathar laity were thrown into an enormous fire at the ''prat des cramats'' near the foot of the castle. Moreover, the church decreed severe chastisement against all laymen suspected of sympathy with Cathars (Council of Narbonne, 1235; Bull Ad extirpanda, 1252).

Hunted down by the Inquisition and abandoned by the nobles of the district, the Albigenses became more and more scattered, hiding in the forests and mountains, and only meeting surreptitiously. The people made some attempts to overthrow the Inquisition and the French, and insurrections broke out under the leadership of Bernard of Foix, Aimerv of Narbonne and Bernard Délicieux at the beginning of the 14th century. But at this point vast inquests were set on foot by the Inquisition, which increased its efforts in the district. Precise indications of these are found in the registers of the Inquisitors, Bernard of Caux, Jean de St Pierre, Geoffroy d'Ablis, and others. The sect was exhausted and could find no more adepts and after 1330 the records of the Inquisition contain few proceedings against Cathars. The last Cathar Perfect, Guillaume Bélibaste, was executed in 1321. Other heretical movements, such as the anti-trinitarian [[Waldensians]] and the pantheistic [[Brethren of the Free Spirit]] survived into the 14th and 15th century, until they were gradually replaced by early Protestant sects, such as the Hussites.

==Influences==

*[[Christian Rosencreutz]], according to some, may have been associated with an underground Cathar movement that hid from the Inquisition. However, this is highly unlikely because there is absolutely no evidence that the Cathar movement still existed by Rosencreuz' time, nor is there any concrete evidence that Rosencreuz existed at all.

==The Holy Grail==

It has been suggested in some modern fiction and non-fiction books that the Cathars could have been the protectors of the [[Holy Grail]] of Christian mythology, especially in the book Holy Blood, Holy Grail, although modern investigation into this book has largely discredited its findings.

==Visigoths==

Visigoths had settled in the region described as central to Catharism, which separated the political ideology from the Frankish northern provinces or Burgundy. The Crusade to rid Christendom of Cathars was a synonym for eradicating the last remnants of Arianism. The disparity between religious practices had not only been between the Visigoths of Toulouse and Franks of Paris, because Burgundy's Geneva would later erupt in Calvinism with opposition by the Franks at that time as well.

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathar Cathar]''. Retrieved on July 15. 2005.

Cathar

2005-07-15T09:42:21Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Catharism''' was a movement with [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] elements that originated around the middle of the 10th century, branded by the contemporary Roman Catholic Church as [[heresy|heretical]]. It existed throughout much of Western Europe, but its home was in Languedoc and surrounding areas in southern [rance.

The name ''Cathar'' most likely originated from Greek ''catharos'', "the pure ones". One of the first recorded uses is Eckbert von Schönau who wrote on heretics from Cologne in 1181: "Hos nostra germania catharos appellat."

The Cathars are also called '''lbigensians'''. This name originates from the end of the 12th century, and was used by the chronicler Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois in 1181. The name refers to the southern town of Albi (the ancient Albiga). The designation is hardly exact, for the centre was at Toulouse and in the neighbouring districts.

==Origins==
The beliefs came originally from Eastern Europe by way of trade routes. The name of Bulgarians (Bougres) was also applied to the Albigenses, and they maintained an association with the [[Bogomils]] of Thrace. Their doctrines have numerous resemblances to those of the Bogomils, and still more to those of the Paulicians, with whom they are also sometimes connected. It is difficult to form any precise idea of the Cathar doctrines, as all the existing knowledge of them is derived from their opponents, and the few texts from the Cathars (the ''Rituel Cathare de Lyon'' and the ''Nouveau Testament en Provencal'') contain very little information concerning their beliefs and moral practices. What is certain is that they formed an anti-sacerdotal party in opposition to the Catholic Church, and raised a continued protest against perceived corruption of the clergy. The Cathar theologians, called Cathari or perfecti by their Catholic executioners and judges, were known to themselves, their followers and even their co-citizens as 'bons hommes' or 'bons chretiens', literally 'good men' or 'good christians', were few in number; the mass of believers (''credentes'') were not initiated into the doctrine at all - they were allegedly freed from all moral prohibition and all religious obligation, on condition that they promised by an act called ''convenenza'' to become "hereticized" by receiving the ''consolamentum'', the baptism of the Spirit, before their death.

The first French Cathars appeared in Limousin between 1012 and 1020. Several were discovered and put to death at Toulouse in 1022. The synods of Charroux (Vienne) (1028) and Toulouse (1056) condemned the growing sect. Preachers were summoned to the districts of the Agenais and the Toulousain to combat the Cathar doctrine in the 1100s. The Cathars, however, gained ground in the south thanks to the protection given by William, Duke of Aquitaine, and a significant proportion of the southern nobility. The people were impressed by the ''bons hommes'', and the anti-sacerdotal preaching of Peter of Bruys and Henry of Lausanne in Perigord.

==Beliefs==
Catharism was based on the idea that the world was evil. This was a distinct feature of older versions of [[Gnosticism]] and [[Neoplatonism]], such as [[Manicheanism]] and the theology of the [[Bogomils]], and the appearance of this idea in Catharism was probably due to the influence of these older Gnostic lines of thought. According to the Cathars, the world had been created by an evil deity known to the Gnostics as the [[Demiurge]]. The Cathars identified the Demiurge with the being the [[Christianity|Christians]] called [[Satan]]. Earlier Gnostics, however, did not identify the Demiurge with Satan.

The Cathars also believed that souls would be [[reincarnation|reborn]] when they escaped the material world and succeeded to the immaterial heaven. The way to escape was to live an [[ascetic]]'s life, and to be not corrupted by the world. Those that did live this life were called 'Perfects' (Parfaits). They had the power to wipe away a person's sins and connections to the material world, so that they would go to heaven when they died. The Perfects themselves lived lives of unimpeachable frugality, in stark contrast to those that lived within the corrupt and opulent church of the time. Commonly, the wiping away of sin, called the ''consolamentum'', was performed on someone about to die. After receiving this, the believer would almost always stop eating, so that they could die faster, and with less taint from the world. The ''consolamentum'' was the only [[sacrament]] of the Cathar faith. They did not perform any rite of marriage, as procreation (bringing more souls into the world) was frowned upon. It was as a result of this particular belief that the term "buggery" was coined (after the 'Bulgars', or 'Bougres') since if they were to give in to sexual temptation, this would at least ensure that no children resulted.

The Cathars also held many beliefs that were odious to the rest of medieval society. They did not believe in the doctrine of the Trinity claiming it was an invention of the Roman Catholic Church. The Catharist concept of Jesus resembled modalistic monarchianism in the West and adoptionism in the East. The Western concept resembled the Oneness doctrine of the nature of God taught by Oneness Pentecostals and Swedenborgians today. Most Cathars, however, believed that [[Jesus]] had been an apparition, a ghost, that showed the way to [[God]]. They refused to believe that the good God could or would come in material form, since all physical objects were tainted by sin. This specific belief is called docetism. Furthermore, they believed that the God of the [[Old Testament]] was the Devil, since he had created the world. They also did not believe in any sacrament except the ''consolamentum'', which was another major heresy.

Women were treated as equals, because their physical form was irrelevant; their soul could have been a man's soul before, and it might once again become one.

Cathar Perfects were also vegetarians. They were required to avoid eating anything considered to be a by-product of sexual reproduction, including cheese, eggs, milk and butter. Having said this, they were allowed to eat fish, as little was then known about the mating habits of marine creatures which were generally believed to simply appear spontaneously in the sea.

One of their ideas most heretical to feudal Europe was the belief that oaths were a sin, because they attached you to the world. To call them a sin in this manner was very dangerous in a society where illiteracy was wide-spread and almost all business transactions and pledges of allegiance were based on oaths.

==Suppression==

In 1147, Pope Eugene III sent a legate to the affected district in order to arrest the progress of the Cathars. The few isolated successes of Bernard of Clairvaux could not obscure the poor results of this mission, and well shows the power of the sect in the south of France at that period. The missions of Cardinal Peter (of St Chrysogonus) to Toulouse and the Toulousain in 1178, and of Henry, cardinal-bishop of Albano, in 1180-1181, obtained merely momentary successes. Henry of Albano's armed expedition, where he took the stronghold at Lavaur, did not extinguish the movement.

The persistent decisions of the councils against the Cathars at this period — in particular, those of the Council of Tours (1163) and of the Third Council of the Lateran (1179) — had scarcely more effect. By the time Pope Innocent III came to power in 1198, he had resolved to suppress the Albigenses.

At first he tried pacific conversion, and sent a number of legates into the affected regions. They had to contend not only with the Cathars, the nobles who protected them, and the people who venerated them, but also with the bishops of the district, who rejected the extraordinary authority which the Pope had conferred upon his legates. In 1204 Innocent III suspended the authority of the bishops in the south of France. Papal legate Peter of Castelnau, known for excommunicating the noblemen who protected the Cathars, retaliated in 1207 by excommunicating the Count of Toulouse, as an abettor of heresy. He was murdered near Saint Gilles Abbey in 1208 on his way back to Rome, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, "probably at the connivance of Raymond VI, count of Toulouse". As soon as he heard of the murder of Peter of Castelnau, the Pope ordered his legates to preach the [[Albigensian Crusade]] against the Cathars.

This war threw the whole of the nobility of the north of France against that of the south, possibly instigated by a papal decree stating that all land owned by Cathars could be confiscated at will. As the area was full of Cathar sympathisers, this made the entire area a target for northern nobles looking to gain new lands. It is thus hardly surprising that the barons of the north flocked south to do battle for the Church.

In one famous incident in 1209, most of Béziers was slaughtered by the Catholic forces headed by the Papal legate. Arnaud-Amaury, the Abbot of Citeaux, was asked how to distinguish between the Catholic and Cathars, and allegedly answered, "Kill them all, God will know his own". The Catholic Encyclopedia denies these words were ever spoken.

The war also involved Peter II, the king of Aragon, who owned fiefdoms and had vassals in the area. Peter died fighting against the crusade on September 12, 1213 at the Battle of Muret.

The war ended in the treaty of Paris (1229), by which the king of France dispossessed the house of Toulouse of the greater part of its fiefs, and that of Beziers of the whole of its fiefs. The independence of the princes of the south was at an end. But in spite of the wholesale massacre of Cathars during the war, Catharism was not extinguished.

In 1215, the bishops of the Catholic Church met at the Fourth Council of the Lateran under Pope Innocent. One of the key goals of the council was to combat heresy.

The Inquisition was established in 1229 to root out the Cathars. Operating in the south at Toulouse, Albi, Carcassonne and other towns during the whole of the 13th century and a great part of the 14th, it succeeded in extirpating the movement. From May 1243 to March 1244, the Cathar citadel of Montségur was besieged by the troops of the seneschal of Carcassonne and the archbishop of Narbonne. On March 16 1244 a large and symbolically important execution took place, where leaders of Catharism together with more than 200 Cathar laity were thrown into an enormous fire at the ''prat des cramats'' near the foot of the castle. Moreover, the church decreed severe chastisement against all laymen suspected of sympathy with Cathars (Council of Narbonne, 1235; Bull Ad extirpanda, 1252).

Hunted down by the Inquisition and abandoned by the nobles of the district, the Albigenses became more and more scattered, hiding in the forests and mountains, and only meeting surreptitiously. The people made some attempts to overthrow the Inquisition and the French, and insurrections broke out under the leadership of Bernard of Foix, Aimerv of Narbonne and Bernard Délicieux at the beginning of the 14th century. But at this point vast inquests were set on foot by the Inquisition, which increased its efforts in the district. Precise indications of these are found in the registers of the Inquisitors, Bernard of Caux, Jean de St Pierre, Geoffroy d'Ablis, and others. The sect was exhausted and could find no more adepts and after 1330 the records of the Inquisition contain few proceedings against Cathars. The last Cathar Perfect, Guillaume Bélibaste, was executed in 1321. Other heretical movements, such as the anti-trinitarian [[Waldensians]] and the pantheistic [[Brethren of the Free Spirit]] survived into the 14th and 15th century, until they were gradually replaced by early Protestant sects, such as the Hussites.

==Influences==

*[[Christian Rosencreuz]], according to some, may have been associated with an underground Cathar movement that hid from the Inquisition. However, this is highly unlikely because there is absolutely no evidence that the Cathar movement still existed by Rosencreuz' time, nor is there any concrete evidence that Rosencreuz existed at all.

==The Holy Grail==

It has been suggested in some modern fiction and non-fiction books that the Cathars could have been the protectors of the [[Holy Grail]] of Christian mythology, especially in the book Holy Blood, Holy Grail, although modern investigation into this book has largely discredited its findings.

==Visigoths==

Visigoths had settled in the region described as central to Catharism, which separated the political ideology from the Frankish northern provinces or Burgundy. The Crusade to rid Christendom of Cathars was a synonym for eradicating the last remnants of Arianism. The disparity between religious practices had not only been between the Visigoths of Toulouse and Franks of Paris, because Burgundy's Geneva would later erupt in Calvinism with opposition by the Franks at that time as well.

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathar Cathar]''. Retrieved on July 15. 2005.

Manichaeism

2005-07-15T09:31:56Z

Fr. Zabed:

'''Manichaeism''' was one of the major ancient religions. Though its organized form is mostly extinct today, a revival has been attempted under the name of '''Neo-Manichaeism'''. However, most of the writings of the founding [[prophet]] [[Manes|Mani]] have been lost. Some scholars and anti-Roman Catholic polemicists argue that its influence subtly continues in Western [[Christianity|Christian]] thought via Augustine of Hippo, who converted to Christianity from Manichaeism and whose writing continues to be enormously influential among Catholic and Protestant theologians.

==Origins==
The religion was founded by Mani, who reportedly was born in western Persia and lived approximately 210-275 [[EV]]. The name ''Mani'' is mainly a title and term of respect rather than a personal name. This title was assumed by the founder himself and so completely replaced his personal name that the precise form of the latter is not known.

Mani was likely influenced by [[Mandaeanism]] and began preaching at an early age. According to biographical accounts preserved by Ibn an-Nadim and al-Biruni, Mani received a revelation as a youth from a spirit whom he would later call the ''Twin''. This 'spirit' allegedly taught him the divine truths of what would become the Manichaean religion. He claimed to be the ''Paraclete'', as promised in the New Testament: the Last [[Prophet]] and Seal of the Prophets that finalized a succession of men guided by God and included figures such as [[Zoroaster]], [[Hermes]], [[Plato]], [[Buddha]], and [[Jesus]].

While Manichaeism was spreading, the large existing religious groups such as Christianity and [[Zoroastrianism]] were competing for greater political and social power. Although having fewer adherents than either group, Manichaeism won the support of many high-ranking political figures. With the aid of the Persian Empire, Mani initiated missionary excursions. After failing to win the favor of the next generation, and having the disapproval of the Zoroastrian clergy, Mani is reported to have died in prison awaiting execution by the Persian Emperor Bahram I. The date of his death is fixed at 276-277 EV.

==Theology==
The most striking principle of Manichee theology is its [[dualism]]. Mani postulated two natures that existed from the beginning: light and darkness. The realm of light lived in peace, while the realm of darkness was in constant fight with itself. The universe is the temporary result of an attack of the realm of darkness on the realm of light, and was created by the Living Spirit, an emanation of the light realm, out of the mixture of light and darkness.

The Manichees made every effort to include all known religious traditions in their faith. As a result, they preserved many [[apocrypha]]l Christian works, such as the Acts of Thomas, that otherwise would have been lost. Mani was eager to describe himself as a "disciple of Jesus Christ", but the Catholic Church rejected him as a [[heresy|heretic]]. Mani declared himself, and was also referred to, as the ''Paraclete'': a Biblical title, meaning "comforter" or "helper", which the Catholic tradition understood as referring to God in the person of the [[Holy Spirit]]. The title was also later applied to [[Mohammed]].

Following [[Manes|Mani]]'s travels to the Kushan Empire (several religious painting in Bamiyan are attributed to him) at the beginning of his proselitizing carrier, various [[Buddhist]] influences seem to have permeated Manichaeism: "Buddhist influences were significant in the formation of Mani's religious thought. The transmigration of souls became a Manichaean belief, and the quadripartite structure of the Manichaean community, divided between male and female monks (the "elect") and lay follower (the "hearers") who supported them, appears to be based on that of the Buddhist [[sangha]]" (Richard Foltz, "Religions of the Silk Road")

==Expansion==
Manichaeism spread with extraordinary rapidity throughout both the east and west. It reached Rome through the apostle Psattiq by 280 EV, who was also in Egypt in 244 and 251. The faith was flourishing in the Fayum area of Egypt in 290. Manichaean monasteries existed in Rome in 312 during the time of the Christian Pope Miltiades. By 354, Hilary of Poitiers wrote that the Manichaean faith was a significant force in southern France.

The Manichaean faith was also widely persecuted. In 291, persecution arose in the Persian empire with the murder of the apostle Sisin by Bahram II, and the slaughtering of many Manichaeans. In 296, Diocletian decreed against the Manichaeans: "We order that their organizers and leaders be subject to the final penalties and condemned to the fire with their abominable scriptures.", resulting in numerous martyrs in Egypt and North Africa. In 38l Christians requested Theodosius I to strip Manichaeans of their civil rights. He issued a decree of death for Manichaean monks in 382.

The faith maintained a sporadic and intermittent existence in the west (Mesopotamia, Africa, Spain, France, North Italy, the Balkans) for a thousand years, and flourished for a time in the land of its birth (Persia) and even further east in Northern India, Western China, and Tibet, where (c. EV 1000) the bulk of the population professed its tenets and where it died out towards the 13th century. The religion was adopted by the Uighur ruler Bugug Khan (759-780), and it remained state religion for about 500 years before the invasion of the Mongols. In the east it spread along trade routes as far as Chang'an, the capital of the Tang dynasty in China. In the 9th century it is reported that the Muslim [[Caliph]] Ma'mun tolerated a community of Manichee.

==Manichaeism and Christianity==
One of the faith's most famous follower in the West was the leading Christian theologian Augustine of Hippo who, after eight or nine years abiding to the Manichaean faith, became an orthodox Christian and potent adversary of Manichaeism.

How much influence the Manichees actually had on Christianity is still being debated. It has been suggested that the [[Bogomils]] and the [[Cathar]]s were only superficially orthodox Christians and were, in essence, Manichees. The record is often confused because medieval writers used the term ''Manichee'' as a synonym for ''heretic''. Priscillian and his followers apparently tried to absorb what they thought was the valuable part of Manichaeaism into Christianity.

In the case of the Cathars, it seems they adopted the Manichee principles of church organization, but none of its theology.

Mani's holy book was called Arzhang and was beautified with paintings. This gave him the title "The Painter".

==References==
*Wikipedia. (2005). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manichaeism Manichaeism]''. Retrieved on July 15. 2005.