https://thelemapedia.org/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=JachinThelemapedia - User contributions [en]2026-08-11T15:55:37ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.44.5https://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=User_talk:Ash&diff=5521User talk:Ash2005-07-19T20:16:34Z<p>Jachin: </p>
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<div>Please feel free to leave me a note if you have any comments or questions about the site or myself. [[User:Ash|Fr. Ash]]<br />
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==page removal==<br />
I'd like your input on the deletion idea here [[Talk:Christopher_Knight]]. I'm leaning to removing the 3 pages in question as way off topic. Thanks, [[User:Frater C.U.G.|Frater C.U.G.]] 23:54, 9 Jul 2005 (CDT)<br />
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The awards are great, love the names! [[User:Frater C.U.G.|Frater C.U.G.]] 00:14, 6 Jul 2005 (CDT)<br />
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== re: your note ==<br />
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I read the "how to contribute" and the tutorial before I attempted to mess with anything -- I just process stuff like that *really* slowly, unfortunately, so I'm making lots of mistakes. I'm used to working with pen on paper and I'm easily intimidated by brackets and the like :-). I hope to be up to speed on getting stuff to look good very soon. I friended you on lj btw -- I'm karma_sue.<br />
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== (note to self -- tilda) ==<br />
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"Please don't take what I said as criticism."<br />
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Oh, it's cool, sorry if I sounded defensive. I appreciate your comments, and the more I explore the site the more astounded I am by 1. the idea itself, 2. the way it's growing, 3. the amount of work you have done and continue to do, and 4. the encouraging attitude/tone of the other editors and the "approachable" feel of the tutorials. This is just an amazing site. I have been a geographically isolated Thelemite for over a decade now, and on top of that I'm a geek about spelling and grammar and a crappy ceremonial magickian, so I'm excited to finally be able to put what I *am* good at in service to the promulgation of the Law and the Order, since long-distance grammar Nazis are not in high demand in most bodies in my geographical area. ;-p<br />
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[[User:Karma|Karma]]<br />
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woohoo, I remembered!<br />
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Hey Ash -- I can't find your comment now, but you said something about using some specific place to leave messages. I wasn't clear if you were referring to this discussion page, so you would receive notice, or somewhere else. Please let me know if this is the right place for you to get notification of messages. Obviously no rush :)<br />
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::Yeah, this is the place :)<br />
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Regarding the religion article... I guess it just seems to me that given the intense scrutiny that topic has been under, perhaps some warning and discussion about the change you intended to make would have been useful. I am not all pissed off about it, and your explanation made sense, but I just had wished that the explanation could have been found in the discussion page of the article, rather than having to pry it forth from you. FWIW, YMMV. <br />
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::You're right, it would have been better of me. I guess I didn't because at the time, there was almost no activity on the site at all. I had started to believe that none of the original authors were paying attention at all. I was obviously in error, and won't make that mistake again. <br />
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Hey thanks for the award and the honor of the Order of Udjat!<br />
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::You've totally earned them. You are now qualified to induct members into the Order.<br />
::[[User:Ash|Fr. Ash]] 03:35, 18 Jul 2005 (CDT)<br />
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Thanks for the corrections brother, I've kept them in mind for future edits. :) [[User:Jachin|Jachin]] 15:16, 19 Jul 2005 (CDT)</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=Talk:Freemasonry&diff=4914Talk:Freemasonry2005-07-09T14:41:22Z<p>Jachin: </p>
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<div>I'd like to add some content about Masonic acceptance of Liber AL. In California in 1996 the Grand Master added AL to the list of accepted sacred texts for the Blue Lodge for candidates to be sworn in on. I was in discussions with the advisor to the Grand Secretary who actually wrote up the proposed legislation and had it presented to the then G.M. Unfortunately this was rescinded just this year by the current Grand Master, and AL is no longer included among the list. I have no idea what other jurisdictions have on the books for this.--[[User:Phos|phos]] 01:06, 30 Sep 2004 (EDT)<br />
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The boiler panel mentions that this article needs expansion with more information dealing with Thelema .. it's impossible to find Thelemic points of view to raise considering it spawned FROM Freemasonry. So we're dealing with the original doctrine, unpolluted as can be found in this era.<br />
[[User:Jachin|Jachin]] 09:41, 9 Jul 2005 (CDT)</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=Freemasonry&diff=8251Freemasonry2005-07-09T14:07:30Z<p>Jachin: /* External links */</p>
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<div>{{thelema}}<br />
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'''Freemasonry''' is a worldwide fraternal organization. Its members are joined together by high ideals, of both a moral and metaphysical nature (and, in the majority of branches, by a common belief in a Supreme Being). Freemasonry is an "esoteric art," in that certain aspects of its internal work are not generally revealed to the public. Masons give numerous reasons for this, one of which is that Freemasonry uses an initiatory system of degrees to explore ethical and philosophical issues, and this system is less effective if the observer knows beforehand what will happen. It often calls itself "a peculiar system of morality veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols." <br />
<br />
==Membership==<br />
<br />
Freemasons are expected to exhibit the utmost tolerance both in "Lodge" (the meeting place of a group of Freemasons) and in their daily lives. Freemasonry will thus accept members from almost any religion, including all denominations of Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and so forth. Exactly how far this goes depends on the particular branch or "jurisdiction" of Freemasonry one is dealing with. Deists have traditionally been accepted. In Lodges derived from the Grand Orient of France and in certain other groups of Lodges, atheists and agnostics are also accepted, without qualification. Most other branches currently require a belief in a Supreme Being. But even there, one finds a high degree of non-dogmatism, and the phrase "Supreme Being" is often given a very broad interpretation, usually allowing Deism and often even allowing naturalistic views of "God/Nature" in the tradition of Baruch Spinoza and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (himself a Freemason), or non-theistic views of Ultimate Reality or Cosmic Oneness, such as found in some Eastern religions and in Western idealism (or for that matter, in modern cosmology). In some other (mostly English-speaking) jurisdictions, Freemasonry is not as tolerant of naturalism as it was in the 18th century, and specific religious requirements with more theistic and orthodox overtones have been added since the early 19th century, including (mostly in North America) belief in the immortality of the soul. The Freemasonry that predominates in Scandinavia, known as the Swedish Rite, accepts only Christians.<br />
<br />
Generally, to be a Freemason, one must: <br />
<br />
# be a man<br />
# believe in a "Supreme Being"<br />
# be at least the minimum age (18-21 years depending on the jurisdiction), <br />
# be of sound mind, body and of good morals, and <br />
# be free (or "born free", ''i.e.'' not born a slave or bondsman). <br />
<br />
The "sound body" requirement is today generally taken to mean physically capable of taking part in Lodge rituals, and most Lodges today are quite flexible in accommodating disabled candidates.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry upholds the principles of "Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth". It teaches moral lessons through rituals. Members working through the rituals are taught by "degrees". Freemasons are also commonly involved in public service and charity work, as well as providing a social outlet for their members. There is considerable variance in the emphasis on these different aspects of Masonry around the world. In Continental Europe, the philosophical side of Freemasonry is more emphasized, while in Britain, North America, and the English-speaking parts of the world, the charity, service and social club aspects are more emphasized.<br />
<br />
While Freemasonry as an organization does not directly involve itself in politics, its members have tended over the years to support certain kinds of political causes with which they have become associated in the public eye: the separation of Church and State, the establishment of secular public schools, and democratic revolutions (in the American United States and French France on a smaller scale, but on a larger scale in other places such as Mexico, Brazil, and repeatedly in Italy).<br />
<br />
Many organizations with various religious and political purposes have been inspired by Freemasonry, and are sometimes confused with it, such as the Protestant Loyal Orange Association and the 19th century Italian Carbonari, which pursued Liberalism and Italian Unity. Many other purely fraternal organizations, too numerous to mention, have also been inspired by Masonry to a greater or lesser extent.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry is often called a "secret society", and in fact is considered by many to be the very prototype for such societies. Many Masons say that it is more accurately described as a "society with secrets". The degree of secrecy varies widely around the world. In English-speaking countries, most Masons are completely public with their affiliation, Masonic buildings are clearly marked, and meeting times are generally a matter of public record. In other countries, where Freemasonry has been more recently, or is even currently, suppressed by the government, secrecy may be practiced more in earnest (again, depending greatly on the particular country). Even in the English-speaking world, the precise details of the rituals are not made public, and Freemasons have a system of secret modes of recognition, such as the Masonic secret grip, by which Masons can recognize each other "in the dark as well as in the light," and which are universally kept strictly secret. (Although these "secrets" have been available in printed exposes and anti-Masonic literature for many years.)<br />
<br />
==Criticism and repression==<br />
<br />
Freemasonry has been a long-time favorite target of conspiracy conspiracy theorists, who see it as an occult and evil power, often associated with Judaism, and usually either bent on world domination, or already secretly in control of world politics.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry is almost universally banned in totalitarian states. In 1925, it was outlawed in Fascist Italy. Allegedly in Nazi Germany, Freemasons were sent to concentration camps and all Masonic Lodges were ordered shut down. German Masons used the blue forget-me-not as a secret means of recognition and as a substitute for the traditional (and too-easily-recognized) square and compasses. According to some interpretations of canon law, Roman Catholics are forbidden to become Freemasons by their church, though Freemasons do not bar Roman Catholics from becoming members. Freemasonry is also discouraged by some religious denominations of Protestantism. <br />
<br />
In modern democracies, Freemasonry is occasionally accused of being a sort of club, or network, where a lot of influence peddling, and perhaps illegal dealings, take place. In the early 1800s, William Morgan disappeared after threatening to expose Freemasonry's secrets, causing some to claim that he had been murdered by Masons. In Italy, in the 1970s, the P2 lodge was investigated in the wake of a financial scandal and a suspicious death. As a result, the lodge was expelled from Italian Masonry (although it continued to function independently). In Nice, France, the head prosecutor accused some judges and other judicial personnel of deliberately stalling or refusing to elucidate cases involving Masons. In the 1990s in Britain, the Labour Party government tried unsuccessfully to pass a law requiring all public officials who were Masons to make their affiliation public.<br />
<br />
: ''See also: Anti-Masonry, United States Anti-Masonic Party.''<br />
<br />
== Ritual and symbols ==<br />
<br />
The Freemasons rely heavily on the architectural symbolism of the Medieval "operative" Masons who actually worked in Rock stone. One of their principal symbols is the "square and compasses", tools of the trade, so arranged as to form a quadrilateral. The square is sometimes said to represent matter, and the compasses spirit or mind. Alternatively, the square might be said to represent the world of the concrete, or the measure of objective reality, while the compasses represent abstraction, or subjective judgment, and so forth (Freemasonry being non-dogmatic, there is no written-in-stone interpretation for any of these symbols). The compasses straddle the square, representing the interdependence between the two. In the space between the two, there is optionally placed a symbol of metaphysical significance. Sometimes, this is a blazing star or other symbol of Light, representing Truth or knowledge. Alternatively, there is often a letter "G" placed there, usually said to represent "God and/or Geometry". <br />
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The square and compasses are displayed at all Masonic meetings, along with the open "Volume of the Sacred Law (or Lore)" (VSL). In English-speaking countries, this is usually a Bible, but it can be whatever book of inspiration or scripture that the members of a particular Lodge or jurisdiction feel they draw on--whether the Bible, the Koran, or other Volumes. In many French Lodges, the Masonic Constitutions are used. In a few cases, a blank book has been used, where the religious makeup of a Lodge was too diverse to permit an easy choice of VSL. In addition to its role as a symbol of written wisdom, inspiration, and sometimes as the revealed will of the Deity, the VSL is what Masonic obligations are taken upon.<br />
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Much of Masonic symbolism is mathematical in nature, and in particular geometrical, which is probably a reason Freemasonry has attracted so many rationalists (such as Voltaire, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Benjamin Franklin, Mark Twain and many others). No particular metaphysical theory is advanced by Freemasonry, however, although there seems to be some influence from the Pythagoreans, from Neo-Platonism, and from early modern Rationalism.<br />
<br />
In keeping with the geometrical and architectural theme of Freemasonry, the Supreme Being (or God, or Creative Principle) is sometimes also referred to in Masonic ritual as "the Grand Geometrician", or the "Great Architect of the Universe". Freemasons use a variety of labels for this concept, often abbreviated "G.A.O.T.U.", in order to avoid the idea that they are talking about any one religion's particular God or God-like concept.<br />
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There are three initial "degrees" of Freemasonry: (1) Entered Apprentice, (2) Fellow Craft and (3) Master Mason. One works through each degree by taking part in a ritual, essentially a medieval mortality Play, in which one plays a role, along with members of the Lodge that one is joining. The setting is Biblical--the building of the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem--although the stories themselves are not directly from the Bible, and not intended to be necessarily Jewish or Christian in nature. Nothing supernatural happens in these stories. The Temple can be taken to represent the "temple" of the individual human being, that of the human community, or of the entire universe.<br />
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As one works through the degrees, one studies the lessons and interprets them for oneself. There are as many ways to interpret the rituals as there are Masons, and no Mason may dictate to any other Mason how he is to interpret them. No particular truths are espoused, but a common structure--speaking symbolically to universal human archetypes--provides for each Mason a means to come to his own answers to life's important questions. Freemasons working through the degrees are often (especially in Continental Europe) asked to prepare papers on related philosophical topics, and present lectures. <br />
<br />
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a Freemason, and his opera, The Magic Flute, makes extensive use of Masonic symbolism. Two books that give a general feel for the symbolism and its interpretation are:<br />
<br />
# "Freemasonry: A Journey Through Ritual and Symbol" by W.K. MacNulty, Thames & Hudson, London, 1991.<br />
# "Symbols of Freemasonry" by D. Beresniak and L. Hamani, Assouline, Paris, 2000.<br />
<br />
===Lodges===<br />
Contrary to popular belief, Freemasons meet ''as'' a ''Lodge'', and not ''in'' a lodge. (This is similar to the distinction made by Christians who meet ''as'' a ''church'', with the church ''building'' associated with the meeting of the faithful.) <br />
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The ''operative'' lodges constructed a lodge building adjacent to the work site where the masons could meet for instruction and social contact. Normally, this was on the southern side of the site (in Europe, the side with the sun warming the stones during the day.) The social part of the building was on the southern side, hence the social gathering of the lodge is still called ''the South''.<br />
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Early ''speculative'' lodges met in taverns and other convenient public meeting places, and employed a Tyler to guard the door from both malicious and simply curious people.<br />
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Lodge buildings have for many years been known as a ''temple''. In many countries this term has now been replaced by ''Masonic Centre''. (See also reference to the Shriners and their Temples. Until 2003-4, the Oscars were held at the Shriners temple/auditorium in Los Angeles.)<br />
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===Freemasonry in the language===<br />
An expression often used in Masonic circles is "to be on the square", meaning to be a reliable sort of person, and this has entered common usage. Other phrases from Freemasonry in common use include "meeting on the level" (without regard to social, economic, religious or cultural differences). The practice of Freemasonry is referred to amongst its members as "The Craft".<br />
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== Organizational structure ==<br />
<br />
There are a great many different "jurisdictions" of Freemasonry, each sovereign and independent of the others, and usually defined according to a geographic territory. There is thus no central Masonic authority, although each jurisdiction maintains a list of other jurisdictions that it formally "recognizes". If the other jurisdiction reciprocates the recognition, the two jurisdictions are said to be "in amity", which permits the members of the one jurisdiction to attend closed meetings of the other jurisdiction's Lodges, and vice-versa. Generally speaking, to be recognized by another jurisdiction, one must (at least) meet that jurisdiction's requirements for "regularity". This generally means that one must have in place, at least, the "ancient landmarks" of Freemasonry... the essential characteristics considered to be universal to Freemasonry in any culture. In keeping with the decentralized and non-dogmatic nature of Freemasonry, however, there is no universally accepted list of landmarks, and even jurisdictions in amity with each other often have completely different ideas as to what those landmarks are. Many jurisdictions take no official position at all as to what the landmarks are.<br />
<br />
There is no tidy way to split jurisdictions into separate camps. For instance, jurisdiction A might recognize B, which recognizes C, which does not recognize A. In addition, the geographical territory of one jurisdiction may overlap with another's, which may affect their relations, for purely territorial reasons. In other cases, one jurisdiction may overlook irregularities in another due simply to a desire to maintain friendly relations. Also, a jurisdiction may be formally affiliated with one tradition, while maintaining informal ties with the other. For all these reasons, labels like "Anglo" and "Continental" must be taken only as rough indicators, not as any kind of clear designation.<br />
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The ruling authority of a Masonic jurisdiction is usually called a "Grand Lodge", or sometimes a "Grand Orient". These normally correspond to a single country, although their territory can be broader or narrower than that (in North America, each state and province has its own Grand Lodge). The oldest jurisdiction in the Anglo branch of Freemasonry is the [http://www.grand-lodge.org/ United Grand Lodge of England] (UGLE), founded in 1717. Its headquarters are at Freemasons Hall, Great Queen Street, London. The oldest in the Continental branch is the [http://www.godf.org/ Grand Orient de France] (GOdF), founded in 1728. At one time, these branches recognized each other, but most jurisdictions cut off formal relations with the GOdF sometime after it started accepting atheists in 1877. In most Latin countries, as well as in Belgium, the French style of Freemasonry predominates. The rest of the world, accounting for the bulk of Freemasonry, tends to follow the English lead.<br />
<br />
===Freemasonry's "appendant bodies"===<br />
Freemasonry is associated with several "appendant bodies", such as the Scottish Rite, the York Rite, the Swedish Rite, the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine (Shriners), the Mystic Order of Veiled Prophets of the Enchanted Realm (Grotto), the Tall Cedars of Lebanon, and the [http://mill-valley.freemasonry.biz/gordian-knot-order.htm Ancient and Heroic Order of the Gordian Knot], among numerous others, all of which tend to expand on the teachings of Freemasonry--often with additional higher degrees--while improving their members and society as a whole. Different jurisdictions vary in how they define their relationship with such bodies. Some of these organizations may have additional religious requirements, compared to Freemasonry proper (or "BCraft Masonry"), since they elaborate on Masonic teachings from a particular perspective.<br />
<br />
In addition to appendant bodies, Freemasonry has relations with several organizations that, while not explicitly Masonic, do have Masonic membership as a prerequisite for membership. Eminent among these is the invitational Masonic research group, Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (S.R.I.A. or Soc. Ros.), the Masonic Rosicrucian society, which has branches throughout the world. A past Supreme Magus of the Soc. Ros. was William Wynn Westcott, one of the founders of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. The S.R.I.A. is known in America as the Societas Rosicruciana in Civitatibus Foederatis (S.R.I.C.F.), the "Rosicrucian Society of the United States".<br />
<br />
There are also certain youth organizations (mainly North American) which are associated with Freemasonry, but are not necessarily Masonic in their content, such as the Order of DeMolay (for boys aged 12-21), the Job's Daughters and the International Order of the Rainbow for Girls (for girls 11-20).<br />
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====Scottish Rite of Freemasonry====<br />
The following is the structure of Freemasonic degrees for the Scottish Rite:<br />
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<br>Note. group titles apply to degrees ''above''.<br />
:33° Inspector General<br />
*'''Supreme Council'''<br />
:32° Master of the Royal Secret <br />
:31° Inspector Inquisitor<br />
*'''Consistory'''<br />
:30° Knight Kadosh<br />
:29° Scottish Knight of Saint Andrew<br />
:28° Knight of the Sun (Prince Adept)<br />
:27° Knight Commander of the Temple<br />
:26° Prince of Mercy<br />
:25° Knight of the Brazen Serpent<br />
:24° Prince of the Tabernacle<br />
:23° Chief of the Tabernacle<br />
:22° Knight of the Royal Axe (Prince of Libanus)<br />
:21° Noachite, or Prussian Knight<br />
:20° Master of the Symbolic Lodge<br />
:19° Grand Pontiff<br />
*'''Council of Kadosh'''<br />
:18° Knight of the Rose Croix<br />
:17° Knight of the East and West<br />
:16° Prince of Jerusalem<br />
:15° Knight of the East, of the Sword or the Eagle<br />
*'''Rose Croix'''<br />
:14° Perfect Elu (Grand Elect, Perfect and Sublime Mason)<br />
:13° Royal Arch of Solomon (Knight of the Ninth Arch)<br />
:12° Grand Master Architect<br />
:11° Elu of the Twelve <br />
:10° Elu of the Fifteen<br />
:9° Elu of the Nine<br />
:8° Intendant of the Building<br />
:7° Provost and Judge<br />
:6° Intimate Secretary<br />
:5° Perfect Master<br />
:4° Secret Master<br />
*'''Lodge of Perfection'''<br />
:3° Master Mason<br />
:2° FellowCraft<br />
:1° Entered Apprentice<br />
*'''Blue Lodge or Craft Lodge'''<br />
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== History of Freemasonry==<br />
<br />
''Main article: History of Freemasonry''<br />
<br />
Freemasonry has been said to be an institutional outgrowth of the medieval guilds of stonemasons (1), a direct descendant of the "Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem" (the Knights Templar)(2), an offshoot of the ancient Mystery schools(1), an administrative arm of the Priory of Sion(3), the Roman Collegia(1), the Comacine masters(1), intellectual descendants of Noah(1), and to have many other various and sundry origins. Others will claim that it dates back only to the late 17th century, and has no real connections at all to earlier organizations. These theories are noted in numerous different texts, and the following are but examples pulled from a sea of books:<br />
<br />
# In "A History of Freemasonry" by H.L. Haywood and James E. Craig, pub. ''circa'' 1927<br />
# In "The Holy Blood and The Holy Grail" by Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln, pub. 1982<br />
# In "Born in Blood" By John Robinson, pub. 1989<br />
<br />
Much of this is highly speculative, and the precise origins of Freemasonry may be lost in history. It is likely that Freemasonry is not a straightforward outgrowth of medieval guilds of stonemasons, for numerous reasons well documented in "Born in Blood" by John Robinson. Amongst the reasons for this conclusion are the fact that Stonemason's guilds do not appear to predate reasonable estimates for the time of Freemasonry's origin, that stonemasons lived near their worksite and thus had no need for secret signs to identify themselves, and that the "Ancient Charges" of Freemasonry are nonsensical when thought of as being rules for a Stonemason's guild.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry is said by some, especially amongst Masons practising the York Rite, to have existed even at the time of King Athelstan of England, in the 10th century C.E. Athelstan is said by some to have been converted to Christianity in York, and to have issued the first Charter to the Masonic Lodges there. This story is not currently substantiated (the dynasty had already been Christian for centuries).<br />
<br />
Some critics and members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) consider the ordinances performed in LDS temples (believed by adherents to be revelation from God to Joseph Smith) similar to elements in the masonic rituals. Mormon apologists say this similarity may be because the Masonic rituals are descended from those given by God at the Temple of Solomon, and still contain many of the original truths.<br />
<br />
A more historically reliable (although still not unassailable) source asserting the antiquity of Freemasonry is the Halliwell Manuscript or Regius Poem, which is believed to date from ''ca.'' 1390, and which makes reference to several concepts and phrases similar to those found in Freemasonry. The manuscript itself refers to an earlier document, of which it seems to be an elaboration.<br />
<br />
It seems reasonable to suppose that, whatever its precise origins, Freemasonry provided a haven for the unorthodox and their sympathizers during a time when such activity could result in one's death, and that this has something to do with the tradition of secret meetings and handshakes. As the Middle Ages gave way to the Modern Age, the need for secrecy subsided, and Freemasons began to openly declare their association with the fraternity, which began to organize itself more formally. In 1717, four Lodges which met at the "Apple-Tree Tavern, the Crown Ale-House near Drury Lane, the Goose and Gridiron in St. Paul's Churchyard, and the Rummer and Grapes Tavern in Westminster" in London, England (as recounted in (2)) combined together and formed the first public Grand Lodge, the Premier Grand Lodge of England (PGLE). The years following saw Grand Lodges open throughout Europe, as the new Freemasonry spread rapidly. How much of this was the spreading of Freemasonry itself, and how much was the public organization of pre-existing secret lodges, is not possible to say with certainty. The PGLE in the beginning did not have the current three degrees, but only the first two. The third degree appeared, so far as we know, around 1725.<br />
<br />
Opinions about the origins, objectives and future of Freemasonry remain controversial from the times of its inception to our times. For example, Shoko Asahara, founder of the controversial Japanese religious group Aum Shinrikyo, has prophesized in some of his sermons that "in the future, Freemasonry will merge into united stream" with Aum Shinrikyo.<br />
<br />
According to Sir Richard Burton, "Sufi-ism [was] the Eastern parent of Freemasonry." (See, F. Hitchman, ''Burton,'' Volume 1, p. 286) The possibility that Burton was correct is examined in detail by Idries Shah in his book entitled ''The Sufis'', beginning on page 205.<br />
<br />
== Women in Freemasonry ==<br />
<br />
The position of women within Freemasonry is complex. Traditionally, only men could be made Freemasons. In Britain and France, and most other countries, women generally join "co-Masonic" Lodges, such as those under the international jurisdiction Le Droit Humain (LDH), which admit both men and women, or they join Lodges under local jurisdictions that admit only women. In North America, it is more common for women not to become Freemasons ''per se'', but to join an associated body with its own, separate traditions, the Order of the Eastern Star (OES), which admits only male Freemasons and their female relatives. In the Netherlands, there is a completely separate, although allied, sorority for women, the Order of Weavers (OOW), which uses symbols from weaving rather than stonemasonry.<br />
<br />
== The two great schisms of Freemasonry (1753 and 1877) ==<br />
<br />
The PGLE (Premier Grand Lodge of England), along with those jurisdictions with which it was in amity, later came to be known colloquially as the "Moderns", to distinguish them from a newer, rival group of Freemasonry, known as the "Antients." The Antients broke away and formed their own Grand Lodge in 1753, prompted by the PGLE's making changes to the secret modes of recognition. Tensions between the two groups were very high at times. Benjamin Franklin was a "Modern" and a deist, for instance, but by the time he died, his Lodge had gone "Antient", and would no longer recognize him as one of their own, declining even to give him a Masonic funeral (see "Revolutionary Brotherhood", by Steven C. Bullock, Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1996).<br />
<br />
The schism was healed in the years following 1813, when the competing Grand Lodges were amalgamated, by virtue of a delicately worded compromise which left English Masonry clearly not Christian, returned the modes of recognition to their pre-1753 form, kept Freemasonry ''per se'' as consisting of three degrees only, but which was ambiguously worded so as to allow the Moderns to think of the Antient Royal Arch degree as an optional higher degree, while still allowing the Antients to view it as the completion of the third degree (see [http://freemasonry.org/psoc/pragmatic.htm]).<br />
<br />
Because both the Antients and the Moderns had "daughter" Lodges throughout the world, and because many of those Lodges still exist, there is a great deal of variability in the Ritual used today, even between UGLE-recognized jurisdictions. Most Lodges conduct their Work in accordance with an agreed-upon single "Rite," such as the "York Rite" (which is popular in the United States), or the "Canadian Rite" (which is, in some ways, a concordance between the Rites used by the "Antients" and "Moderns").<br />
<br />
The second great schism in Freemasonry occurred in the years following 1877, when the GOdF started accepting atheists unreservedly. While the issue of atheism is probably the greatest single factor in the split with the GOdF, the English also point to the French recognition of women's Masonry and co-Masonry, as well as the tendency of French Masons to be more willing to discuss religion and politics in Lodge. While the French curtail such discussion, they do not ban it as outright as do the English (see [http://bessel.org/masrec/france.htm]). The schism between the two branches has occasionally been breached for short periods of time, especially during the First World War when American Masons overseas wanted to be able to visit French Lodges (see [http://www.bessel.org/recfranc.htm]).<br />
<br />
Concerning religious requirements, the oldest constitution of Freemasonry (that of Anderson, 1723) says only that a Mason "will never be a stupid Atheist nor an irreligious Libertine" if he "rightly understands the Art". The only religion required was "that Religion in which all Men agree, leaving their particular Opinions to themselves" ([http://www.2be1ask1.com/library/anderson.html]). Masons disagree as to whether "stupid" and "irreligious" are meant as necessary or as accidental modifiers of "atheist" and "libertine". It is possible the ambiguity is intentional. In 1815, the newly amalgamated UGLE changed Anderson's constitutions to include more orthodox overtones: "Let a man's religion or mode of worship be what it may, he is not excluded from the Order, provided he believes in the glorious Architect of heaven and earth, and practices the sacred duties of morality." The English enforce this with a requirement for belief in a Supreme Being, and in his revealed will. While these requirements can still be interpreted in a non-theistic manner, they made it more difficult for unorthodox believers to enter the fraternity.<br />
<br />
In 1849, the GOdF followed the English lead by adopting the "Supreme Being" requirement, but there was increasing pressure in Latin countries to openly admit atheists. There was an attempt at a compromise in 1875, by allowing the alternative phrase "Creative Principle" (which was less theistic-sounding than "Supreme Being"), but this was ultimately not enough for the GOdF, and in 1877 they went back to having no religious entrance requirements, adopting the original Anderson document of 1723 as their official Constitutions. They also created a modified ritual that made no direct verbal reference to the G.A.O.T.U. (although, as a symbol, it was arguably still present). This new Rite did not replace the older ones, but was added as an alternative (European jurisdictions in general tend not to restrict themselves to a single Rite, like most North American jurisdictions, but offer a menu of Rites, from which their Lodges can choose.)<br />
<br />
==Cultural references==<br />
* The Freemasons are spoofed in a Simpsons sketch as ''The Stonecutters'', a secret organization that controls everything from NASA to the Academy Awards.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Wikipedia. (2004). [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemasonry Freemasonry]. Retrieved Sept. 21, 2004.<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.grand-lodge.org/ United Grand Lodge of England] (UGLE)<br />
*[http://www.uglnsw.freemasonry.org.au/ United Grand Lodge of New South Wales, Australia]<br />
*[http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/ PS Review of Freemasonry]<br />
*[http://www.godf.org/ Grand Orient de France] (GOdF)<br />
*[http://www.masonicinfo.com/famous.htm Famous Freemasons]<br />
*[http://www.internetloge.de/hotlinks/hyplink.htm Masonic Link Collection]<br />
*[http://internetloge.de/masmon/masmon.htm WEBB'S FREEMASON'S MONITOR - including the first three degrees]<br />
*[http://internetloge.de/masmanu/masmanu.htm Robert Macoy: THE MASONIC MANUAL - A pocket Companion for the Initiated]<br />
*[http://internetloge.de/massym/massym.htm Albert G. Mackey, M. D.: SYMBOLISM OF FREEMASONRY]<br />
*[http://www.internetloge.de/kunst/kunstabe.htm Masonic Art]<br />
[[Category:Organizations]]<br />
{{se_freemasonry}}</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=Freemasonry&diff=4860Freemasonry2005-07-09T14:05:56Z<p>Jachin: /* Membership */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{thelema}}<br />
<br />
'''Freemasonry''' is a worldwide fraternal organization. Its members are joined together by high ideals, of both a moral and metaphysical nature (and, in the majority of branches, by a common belief in a Supreme Being). Freemasonry is an "esoteric art," in that certain aspects of its internal work are not generally revealed to the public. Masons give numerous reasons for this, one of which is that Freemasonry uses an initiatory system of degrees to explore ethical and philosophical issues, and this system is less effective if the observer knows beforehand what will happen. It often calls itself "a peculiar system of morality veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols." <br />
<br />
==Membership==<br />
<br />
Freemasons are expected to exhibit the utmost tolerance both in "Lodge" (the meeting place of a group of Freemasons) and in their daily lives. Freemasonry will thus accept members from almost any religion, including all denominations of Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and so forth. Exactly how far this goes depends on the particular branch or "jurisdiction" of Freemasonry one is dealing with. Deists have traditionally been accepted. In Lodges derived from the Grand Orient of France and in certain other groups of Lodges, atheists and agnostics are also accepted, without qualification. Most other branches currently require a belief in a Supreme Being. But even there, one finds a high degree of non-dogmatism, and the phrase "Supreme Being" is often given a very broad interpretation, usually allowing Deism and often even allowing naturalistic views of "God/Nature" in the tradition of Baruch Spinoza and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (himself a Freemason), or non-theistic views of Ultimate Reality or Cosmic Oneness, such as found in some Eastern religions and in Western idealism (or for that matter, in modern cosmology). In some other (mostly English-speaking) jurisdictions, Freemasonry is not as tolerant of naturalism as it was in the 18th century, and specific religious requirements with more theistic and orthodox overtones have been added since the early 19th century, including (mostly in North America) belief in the immortality of the soul. The Freemasonry that predominates in Scandinavia, known as the Swedish Rite, accepts only Christians.<br />
<br />
Generally, to be a Freemason, one must: <br />
<br />
# be a man<br />
# believe in a "Supreme Being"<br />
# be at least the minimum age (18-21 years depending on the jurisdiction), <br />
# be of sound mind, body and of good morals, and <br />
# be free (or "born free", ''i.e.'' not born a slave or bondsman). <br />
<br />
The "sound body" requirement is today generally taken to mean physically capable of taking part in Lodge rituals, and most Lodges today are quite flexible in accommodating disabled candidates.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry upholds the principles of "Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth". It teaches moral lessons through rituals. Members working through the rituals are taught by "degrees". Freemasons are also commonly involved in public service and charity work, as well as providing a social outlet for their members. There is considerable variance in the emphasis on these different aspects of Masonry around the world. In Continental Europe, the philosophical side of Freemasonry is more emphasized, while in Britain, North America, and the English-speaking parts of the world, the charity, service and social club aspects are more emphasized.<br />
<br />
While Freemasonry as an organization does not directly involve itself in politics, its members have tended over the years to support certain kinds of political causes with which they have become associated in the public eye: the separation of Church and State, the establishment of secular public schools, and democratic revolutions (in the American United States and French France on a smaller scale, but on a larger scale in other places such as Mexico, Brazil, and repeatedly in Italy).<br />
<br />
Many organizations with various religious and political purposes have been inspired by Freemasonry, and are sometimes confused with it, such as the Protestant Loyal Orange Association and the 19th century Italian Carbonari, which pursued Liberalism and Italian Unity. Many other purely fraternal organizations, too numerous to mention, have also been inspired by Masonry to a greater or lesser extent.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry is often called a "secret society", and in fact is considered by many to be the very prototype for such societies. Many Masons say that it is more accurately described as a "society with secrets". The degree of secrecy varies widely around the world. In English-speaking countries, most Masons are completely public with their affiliation, Masonic buildings are clearly marked, and meeting times are generally a matter of public record. In other countries, where Freemasonry has been more recently, or is even currently, suppressed by the government, secrecy may be practiced more in earnest (again, depending greatly on the particular country). Even in the English-speaking world, the precise details of the rituals are not made public, and Freemasons have a system of secret modes of recognition, such as the Masonic secret grip, by which Masons can recognize each other "in the dark as well as in the light," and which are universally kept strictly secret. (Although these "secrets" have been available in printed exposes and anti-Masonic literature for many years.)<br />
<br />
==Criticism and repression==<br />
<br />
Freemasonry has been a long-time favorite target of conspiracy conspiracy theorists, who see it as an occult and evil power, often associated with Judaism, and usually either bent on world domination, or already secretly in control of world politics.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry is almost universally banned in totalitarian states. In 1925, it was outlawed in Fascist Italy. Allegedly in Nazi Germany, Freemasons were sent to concentration camps and all Masonic Lodges were ordered shut down. German Masons used the blue forget-me-not as a secret means of recognition and as a substitute for the traditional (and too-easily-recognized) square and compasses. According to some interpretations of canon law, Roman Catholics are forbidden to become Freemasons by their church, though Freemasons do not bar Roman Catholics from becoming members. Freemasonry is also discouraged by some religious denominations of Protestantism. <br />
<br />
In modern democracies, Freemasonry is occasionally accused of being a sort of club, or network, where a lot of influence peddling, and perhaps illegal dealings, take place. In the early 1800s, William Morgan disappeared after threatening to expose Freemasonry's secrets, causing some to claim that he had been murdered by Masons. In Italy, in the 1970s, the P2 lodge was investigated in the wake of a financial scandal and a suspicious death. As a result, the lodge was expelled from Italian Masonry (although it continued to function independently). In Nice, France, the head prosecutor accused some judges and other judicial personnel of deliberately stalling or refusing to elucidate cases involving Masons. In the 1990s in Britain, the Labour Party government tried unsuccessfully to pass a law requiring all public officials who were Masons to make their affiliation public.<br />
<br />
: ''See also: Anti-Masonry, United States Anti-Masonic Party.''<br />
<br />
== Ritual and symbols ==<br />
<br />
The Freemasons rely heavily on the architectural symbolism of the Medieval "operative" Masons who actually worked in Rock stone. One of their principal symbols is the "square and compasses", tools of the trade, so arranged as to form a quadrilateral. The square is sometimes said to represent matter, and the compasses spirit or mind. Alternatively, the square might be said to represent the world of the concrete, or the measure of objective reality, while the compasses represent abstraction, or subjective judgment, and so forth (Freemasonry being non-dogmatic, there is no written-in-stone interpretation for any of these symbols). The compasses straddle the square, representing the interdependence between the two. In the space between the two, there is optionally placed a symbol of metaphysical significance. Sometimes, this is a blazing star or other symbol of Light, representing Truth or knowledge. Alternatively, there is often a letter "G" placed there, usually said to represent "God and/or Geometry". <br />
<br />
The square and compasses are displayed at all Masonic meetings, along with the open "Volume of the Sacred Law (or Lore)" (VSL). In English-speaking countries, this is usually a Bible, but it can be whatever book of inspiration or scripture that the members of a particular Lodge or jurisdiction feel they draw on--whether the Bible, the Koran, or other Volumes. In many French Lodges, the Masonic Constitutions are used. In a few cases, a blank book has been used, where the religious makeup of a Lodge was too diverse to permit an easy choice of VSL. In addition to its role as a symbol of written wisdom, inspiration, and sometimes as the revealed will of the Deity, the VSL is what Masonic obligations are taken upon.<br />
<br />
Much of Masonic symbolism is mathematical in nature, and in particular geometrical, which is probably a reason Freemasonry has attracted so many rationalists (such as Voltaire, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Benjamin Franklin, Mark Twain and many others). No particular metaphysical theory is advanced by Freemasonry, however, although there seems to be some influence from the Pythagoreans, from Neo-Platonism, and from early modern Rationalism.<br />
<br />
In keeping with the geometrical and architectural theme of Freemasonry, the Supreme Being (or God, or Creative Principle) is sometimes also referred to in Masonic ritual as "the Grand Geometrician", or the "Great Architect of the Universe". Freemasons use a variety of labels for this concept, often abbreviated "G.A.O.T.U.", in order to avoid the idea that they are talking about any one religion's particular God or God-like concept.<br />
<br />
There are three initial "degrees" of Freemasonry: (1) Entered Apprentice, (2) Fellow Craft and (3) Master Mason. One works through each degree by taking part in a ritual, essentially a medieval mortality Play, in which one plays a role, along with members of the Lodge that one is joining. The setting is Biblical--the building of the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem--although the stories themselves are not directly from the Bible, and not intended to be necessarily Jewish or Christian in nature. Nothing supernatural happens in these stories. The Temple can be taken to represent the "temple" of the individual human being, that of the human community, or of the entire universe.<br />
<br />
As one works through the degrees, one studies the lessons and interprets them for oneself. There are as many ways to interpret the rituals as there are Masons, and no Mason may dictate to any other Mason how he is to interpret them. No particular truths are espoused, but a common structure--speaking symbolically to universal human archetypes--provides for each Mason a means to come to his own answers to life's important questions. Freemasons working through the degrees are often (especially in Continental Europe) asked to prepare papers on related philosophical topics, and present lectures. <br />
<br />
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a Freemason, and his opera, The Magic Flute, makes extensive use of Masonic symbolism. Two books that give a general feel for the symbolism and its interpretation are:<br />
<br />
# "Freemasonry: A Journey Through Ritual and Symbol" by W.K. MacNulty, Thames & Hudson, London, 1991.<br />
# "Symbols of Freemasonry" by D. Beresniak and L. Hamani, Assouline, Paris, 2000.<br />
<br />
===Lodges===<br />
Contrary to popular belief, Freemasons meet ''as'' a ''Lodge'', and not ''in'' a lodge. (This is similar to the distinction made by Christians who meet ''as'' a ''church'', with the church ''building'' associated with the meeting of the faithful.) <br />
<br />
The ''operative'' lodges constructed a lodge building adjacent to the work site where the masons could meet for instruction and social contact. Normally, this was on the southern side of the site (in Europe, the side with the sun warming the stones during the day.) The social part of the building was on the southern side, hence the social gathering of the lodge is still called ''the South''.<br />
<br />
Early ''speculative'' lodges met in taverns and other convenient public meeting places, and employed a Tyler to guard the door from both malicious and simply curious people.<br />
<br />
Lodge buildings have for many years been known as a ''temple''. In many countries this term has now been replaced by ''Masonic Centre''. (See also reference to the Shriners and their Temples. Until 2003-4, the Oscars were held at the Shriners temple/auditorium in Los Angeles.)<br />
<br />
===Freemasonry in the language===<br />
An expression often used in Masonic circles is "to be on the square", meaning to be a reliable sort of person, and this has entered common usage. Other phrases from Freemasonry in common use include "meeting on the level" (without regard to social, economic, religious or cultural differences). The practice of Freemasonry is referred to amongst its members as "The Craft".<br />
<br />
== Organizational structure ==<br />
<br />
There are a great many different "jurisdictions" of Freemasonry, each sovereign and independent of the others, and usually defined according to a geographic territory. There is thus no central Masonic authority, although each jurisdiction maintains a list of other jurisdictions that it formally "recognizes". If the other jurisdiction reciprocates the recognition, the two jurisdictions are said to be "in amity", which permits the members of the one jurisdiction to attend closed meetings of the other jurisdiction's Lodges, and vice-versa. Generally speaking, to be recognized by another jurisdiction, one must (at least) meet that jurisdiction's requirements for "regularity". This generally means that one must have in place, at least, the "ancient landmarks" of Freemasonry... the essential characteristics considered to be universal to Freemasonry in any culture. In keeping with the decentralized and non-dogmatic nature of Freemasonry, however, there is no universally accepted list of landmarks, and even jurisdictions in amity with each other often have completely different ideas as to what those landmarks are. Many jurisdictions take no official position at all as to what the landmarks are.<br />
<br />
There is no tidy way to split jurisdictions into separate camps. For instance, jurisdiction A might recognize B, which recognizes C, which does not recognize A. In addition, the geographical territory of one jurisdiction may overlap with another's, which may affect their relations, for purely territorial reasons. In other cases, one jurisdiction may overlook irregularities in another due simply to a desire to maintain friendly relations. Also, a jurisdiction may be formally affiliated with one tradition, while maintaining informal ties with the other. For all these reasons, labels like "Anglo" and "Continental" must be taken only as rough indicators, not as any kind of clear designation.<br />
<br />
The ruling authority of a Masonic jurisdiction is usually called a "Grand Lodge", or sometimes a "Grand Orient". These normally correspond to a single country, although their territory can be broader or narrower than that (in North America, each state and province has its own Grand Lodge). The oldest jurisdiction in the Anglo branch of Freemasonry is the [http://www.grand-lodge.org/ United Grand Lodge of England] (UGLE), founded in 1717. Its headquarters are at Freemasons Hall, Great Queen Street, London. The oldest in the Continental branch is the [http://www.godf.org/ Grand Orient de France] (GOdF), founded in 1728. At one time, these branches recognized each other, but most jurisdictions cut off formal relations with the GOdF sometime after it started accepting atheists in 1877. In most Latin countries, as well as in Belgium, the French style of Freemasonry predominates. The rest of the world, accounting for the bulk of Freemasonry, tends to follow the English lead.<br />
<br />
===Freemasonry's "appendant bodies"===<br />
Freemasonry is associated with several "appendant bodies", such as the Scottish Rite, the York Rite, the Swedish Rite, the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine (Shriners), the Mystic Order of Veiled Prophets of the Enchanted Realm (Grotto), the Tall Cedars of Lebanon, and the [http://mill-valley.freemasonry.biz/gordian-knot-order.htm Ancient and Heroic Order of the Gordian Knot], among numerous others, all of which tend to expand on the teachings of Freemasonry--often with additional higher degrees--while improving their members and society as a whole. Different jurisdictions vary in how they define their relationship with such bodies. Some of these organizations may have additional religious requirements, compared to Freemasonry proper (or "BCraft Masonry"), since they elaborate on Masonic teachings from a particular perspective.<br />
<br />
In addition to appendant bodies, Freemasonry has relations with several organizations that, while not explicitly Masonic, do have Masonic membership as a prerequisite for membership. Eminent among these is the invitational Masonic research group, Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (S.R.I.A. or Soc. Ros.), the Masonic Rosicrucian society, which has branches throughout the world. A past Supreme Magus of the Soc. Ros. was William Wynn Westcott, one of the founders of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. The S.R.I.A. is known in America as the Societas Rosicruciana in Civitatibus Foederatis (S.R.I.C.F.), the "Rosicrucian Society of the United States".<br />
<br />
There are also certain youth organizations (mainly North American) which are associated with Freemasonry, but are not necessarily Masonic in their content, such as the Order of DeMolay (for boys aged 12-21), the Job's Daughters and the International Order of the Rainbow for Girls (for girls 11-20).<br />
<br />
====Scottish Rite of Freemasonry====<br />
The following is the structure of Freemasonic degrees for the Scottish Rite:<br />
<br />
<br>Note. group titles apply to degrees ''above''.<br />
:33° Inspector General<br />
*'''Supreme Council'''<br />
:32° Master of the Royal Secret <br />
:31° Inspector Inquisitor<br />
*'''Consistory'''<br />
:30° Knight Kadosh<br />
:29° Scottish Knight of Saint Andrew<br />
:28° Knight of the Sun (Prince Adept)<br />
:27° Knight Commander of the Temple<br />
:26° Prince of Mercy<br />
:25° Knight of the Brazen Serpent<br />
:24° Prince of the Tabernacle<br />
:23° Chief of the Tabernacle<br />
:22° Knight of the Royal Axe (Prince of Libanus)<br />
:21° Noachite, or Prussian Knight<br />
:20° Master of the Symbolic Lodge<br />
:19° Grand Pontiff<br />
*'''Council of Kadosh'''<br />
:18° Knight of the Rose Croix<br />
:17° Knight of the East and West<br />
:16° Prince of Jerusalem<br />
:15° Knight of the East, of the Sword or the Eagle<br />
*'''Rose Croix'''<br />
:14° Perfect Elu (Grand Elect, Perfect and Sublime Mason)<br />
:13° Royal Arch of Solomon (Knight of the Ninth Arch)<br />
:12° Grand Master Architect<br />
:11° Elu of the Twelve <br />
:10° Elu of the Fifteen<br />
:9° Elu of the Nine<br />
:8° Intendant of the Building<br />
:7° Provost and Judge<br />
:6° Intimate Secretary<br />
:5° Perfect Master<br />
:4° Secret Master<br />
*'''Lodge of Perfection'''<br />
:3° Master Mason<br />
:2° FellowCraft<br />
:1° Entered Apprentice<br />
*'''Blue Lodge or Craft Lodge'''<br />
<br />
== History of Freemasonry==<br />
<br />
''Main article: History of Freemasonry''<br />
<br />
Freemasonry has been said to be an institutional outgrowth of the medieval guilds of stonemasons (1), a direct descendant of the "Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem" (the Knights Templar)(2), an offshoot of the ancient Mystery schools(1), an administrative arm of the Priory of Sion(3), the Roman Collegia(1), the Comacine masters(1), intellectual descendants of Noah(1), and to have many other various and sundry origins. Others will claim that it dates back only to the late 17th century, and has no real connections at all to earlier organizations. These theories are noted in numerous different texts, and the following are but examples pulled from a sea of books:<br />
<br />
# In "A History of Freemasonry" by H.L. Haywood and James E. Craig, pub. ''circa'' 1927<br />
# In "The Holy Blood and The Holy Grail" by Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln, pub. 1982<br />
# In "Born in Blood" By John Robinson, pub. 1989<br />
<br />
Much of this is highly speculative, and the precise origins of Freemasonry may be lost in history. It is likely that Freemasonry is not a straightforward outgrowth of medieval guilds of stonemasons, for numerous reasons well documented in "Born in Blood" by John Robinson. Amongst the reasons for this conclusion are the fact that Stonemason's guilds do not appear to predate reasonable estimates for the time of Freemasonry's origin, that stonemasons lived near their worksite and thus had no need for secret signs to identify themselves, and that the "Ancient Charges" of Freemasonry are nonsensical when thought of as being rules for a Stonemason's guild.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry is said by some, especially amongst Masons practising the York Rite, to have existed even at the time of King Athelstan of England, in the 10th century C.E. Athelstan is said by some to have been converted to Christianity in York, and to have issued the first Charter to the Masonic Lodges there. This story is not currently substantiated (the dynasty had already been Christian for centuries).<br />
<br />
Some critics and members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) consider the ordinances performed in LDS temples (believed by adherents to be revelation from God to Joseph Smith) similar to elements in the masonic rituals. Mormon apologists say this similarity may be because the Masonic rituals are descended from those given by God at the Temple of Solomon, and still contain many of the original truths.<br />
<br />
A more historically reliable (although still not unassailable) source asserting the antiquity of Freemasonry is the Halliwell Manuscript or Regius Poem, which is believed to date from ''ca.'' 1390, and which makes reference to several concepts and phrases similar to those found in Freemasonry. The manuscript itself refers to an earlier document, of which it seems to be an elaboration.<br />
<br />
It seems reasonable to suppose that, whatever its precise origins, Freemasonry provided a haven for the unorthodox and their sympathizers during a time when such activity could result in one's death, and that this has something to do with the tradition of secret meetings and handshakes. As the Middle Ages gave way to the Modern Age, the need for secrecy subsided, and Freemasons began to openly declare their association with the fraternity, which began to organize itself more formally. In 1717, four Lodges which met at the "Apple-Tree Tavern, the Crown Ale-House near Drury Lane, the Goose and Gridiron in St. Paul's Churchyard, and the Rummer and Grapes Tavern in Westminster" in London, England (as recounted in (2)) combined together and formed the first public Grand Lodge, the Premier Grand Lodge of England (PGLE). The years following saw Grand Lodges open throughout Europe, as the new Freemasonry spread rapidly. How much of this was the spreading of Freemasonry itself, and how much was the public organization of pre-existing secret lodges, is not possible to say with certainty. The PGLE in the beginning did not have the current three degrees, but only the first two. The third degree appeared, so far as we know, around 1725.<br />
<br />
Opinions about the origins, objectives and future of Freemasonry remain controversial from the times of its inception to our times. For example, Shoko Asahara, founder of the controversial Japanese religious group Aum Shinrikyo, has prophesized in some of his sermons that "in the future, Freemasonry will merge into united stream" with Aum Shinrikyo.<br />
<br />
According to Sir Richard Burton, "Sufi-ism [was] the Eastern parent of Freemasonry." (See, F. Hitchman, ''Burton,'' Volume 1, p. 286) The possibility that Burton was correct is examined in detail by Idries Shah in his book entitled ''The Sufis'', beginning on page 205.<br />
<br />
== Women in Freemasonry ==<br />
<br />
The position of women within Freemasonry is complex. Traditionally, only men could be made Freemasons. In Britain and France, and most other countries, women generally join "co-Masonic" Lodges, such as those under the international jurisdiction Le Droit Humain (LDH), which admit both men and women, or they join Lodges under local jurisdictions that admit only women. In North America, it is more common for women not to become Freemasons ''per se'', but to join an associated body with its own, separate traditions, the Order of the Eastern Star (OES), which admits only male Freemasons and their female relatives. In the Netherlands, there is a completely separate, although allied, sorority for women, the Order of Weavers (OOW), which uses symbols from weaving rather than stonemasonry.<br />
<br />
== The two great schisms of Freemasonry (1753 and 1877) ==<br />
<br />
The PGLE (Premier Grand Lodge of England), along with those jurisdictions with which it was in amity, later came to be known colloquially as the "Moderns", to distinguish them from a newer, rival group of Freemasonry, known as the "Antients." The Antients broke away and formed their own Grand Lodge in 1753, prompted by the PGLE's making changes to the secret modes of recognition. Tensions between the two groups were very high at times. Benjamin Franklin was a "Modern" and a deist, for instance, but by the time he died, his Lodge had gone "Antient", and would no longer recognize him as one of their own, declining even to give him a Masonic funeral (see "Revolutionary Brotherhood", by Steven C. Bullock, Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1996).<br />
<br />
The schism was healed in the years following 1813, when the competing Grand Lodges were amalgamated, by virtue of a delicately worded compromise which left English Masonry clearly not Christian, returned the modes of recognition to their pre-1753 form, kept Freemasonry ''per se'' as consisting of three degrees only, but which was ambiguously worded so as to allow the Moderns to think of the Antient Royal Arch degree as an optional higher degree, while still allowing the Antients to view it as the completion of the third degree (see [http://freemasonry.org/psoc/pragmatic.htm]).<br />
<br />
Because both the Antients and the Moderns had "daughter" Lodges throughout the world, and because many of those Lodges still exist, there is a great deal of variability in the Ritual used today, even between UGLE-recognized jurisdictions. Most Lodges conduct their Work in accordance with an agreed-upon single "Rite," such as the "York Rite" (which is popular in the United States), or the "Canadian Rite" (which is, in some ways, a concordance between the Rites used by the "Antients" and "Moderns").<br />
<br />
The second great schism in Freemasonry occurred in the years following 1877, when the GOdF started accepting atheists unreservedly. While the issue of atheism is probably the greatest single factor in the split with the GOdF, the English also point to the French recognition of women's Masonry and co-Masonry, as well as the tendency of French Masons to be more willing to discuss religion and politics in Lodge. While the French curtail such discussion, they do not ban it as outright as do the English (see [http://bessel.org/masrec/france.htm]). The schism between the two branches has occasionally been breached for short periods of time, especially during the First World War when American Masons overseas wanted to be able to visit French Lodges (see [http://www.bessel.org/recfranc.htm]).<br />
<br />
Concerning religious requirements, the oldest constitution of Freemasonry (that of Anderson, 1723) says only that a Mason "will never be a stupid Atheist nor an irreligious Libertine" if he "rightly understands the Art". The only religion required was "that Religion in which all Men agree, leaving their particular Opinions to themselves" ([http://www.2be1ask1.com/library/anderson.html]). Masons disagree as to whether "stupid" and "irreligious" are meant as necessary or as accidental modifiers of "atheist" and "libertine". It is possible the ambiguity is intentional. In 1815, the newly amalgamated UGLE changed Anderson's constitutions to include more orthodox overtones: "Let a man's religion or mode of worship be what it may, he is not excluded from the Order, provided he believes in the glorious Architect of heaven and earth, and practices the sacred duties of morality." The English enforce this with a requirement for belief in a Supreme Being, and in his revealed will. While these requirements can still be interpreted in a non-theistic manner, they made it more difficult for unorthodox believers to enter the fraternity.<br />
<br />
In 1849, the GOdF followed the English lead by adopting the "Supreme Being" requirement, but there was increasing pressure in Latin countries to openly admit atheists. There was an attempt at a compromise in 1875, by allowing the alternative phrase "Creative Principle" (which was less theistic-sounding than "Supreme Being"), but this was ultimately not enough for the GOdF, and in 1877 they went back to having no religious entrance requirements, adopting the original Anderson document of 1723 as their official Constitutions. They also created a modified ritual that made no direct verbal reference to the G.A.O.T.U. (although, as a symbol, it was arguably still present). This new Rite did not replace the older ones, but was added as an alternative (European jurisdictions in general tend not to restrict themselves to a single Rite, like most North American jurisdictions, but offer a menu of Rites, from which their Lodges can choose.)<br />
<br />
==Cultural references==<br />
* The Freemasons are spoofed in a Simpsons sketch as ''The Stonecutters'', a secret organization that controls everything from NASA to the Academy Awards.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Wikipedia. (2004). [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemasonry Freemasonry]. Retrieved Sept. 21, 2004.<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.grand-lodge.org/ United Grand Lodge of England] (UGLE)<br />
*[http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/ PS Review of Freemasonry]<br />
*[http://www.godf.org/ Grand Orient de France] (GOdF)<br />
*[http://www.masonicinfo.com/famous.htm Famous Freemasons]<br />
*[http://www.internetloge.de/hotlinks/hyplink.htm Masonic Link Collection]<br />
*[http://internetloge.de/masmon/masmon.htm WEBB'S FREEMASON'S MONITOR - including the first three degrees]<br />
*[http://internetloge.de/masmanu/masmanu.htm Robert Macoy: THE MASONIC MANUAL - A pocket Companion for the Initiated]<br />
*[http://internetloge.de/massym/massym.htm Albert G. Mackey, M. D.: SYMBOLISM OF FREEMASONRY]<br />
*[http://www.internetloge.de/kunst/kunstabe.htm Masonic Art]<br />
[[Category:Organizations]]<br />
{{se_freemasonry}}</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=Freemasonry&diff=4859Freemasonry2005-07-09T14:04:01Z<p>Jachin: /* Women in Freemasonry */</p>
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<div>{{thelema}}<br />
<br />
'''Freemasonry''' is a worldwide fraternal organization. Its members are joined together by high ideals, of both a moral and metaphysical nature (and, in the majority of branches, by a common belief in a Supreme Being). Freemasonry is an "esoteric art," in that certain aspects of its internal work are not generally revealed to the public. Masons give numerous reasons for this, one of which is that Freemasonry uses an initiatory system of degrees to explore ethical and philosophical issues, and this system is less effective if the observer knows beforehand what will happen. It often calls itself "a peculiar system of morality veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols." <br />
<br />
==Membership==<br />
<br />
Freemasons are expected to exhibit the utmost tolerance both in "Lodge" (the meeting place of a group of Freemasons) and in their daily lives. Freemasonry will thus accept members from almost any religion, including all denominations of Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and so forth. Exactly how far this goes depends on the particular branch or "jurisdiction" of Freemasonry one is dealing with. Deists have traditionally been accepted. In Lodges derived from the Grand Orient of France and in certain other groups of Lodges, atheists and agnostics are also accepted, without qualification. Most other branches currently require a belief in a Supreme Being. But even there, one finds a high degree of non-dogmatism, and the phrase "Supreme Being" is often given a very broad interpretation, usually allowing Deism and often even allowing naturalistic views of "God/Nature" in the tradition of Baruch Spinoza and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (himself a Freemason), or non-theistic views of Ultimate Reality or Cosmic Oneness, such as found in some Eastern religions and in Western idealism (or for that matter, in modern cosmology). In some other (mostly English-speaking) jurisdictions, Freemasonry is not as tolerant of naturalism as it was in the 18th century, and specific religious requirements with more theistic and orthodox overtones have been added since the early 19th century, including (mostly in North America) belief in the immortality of the soul. The Freemasonry that predominates in Scandinavia, known as the Swedish Rite, accepts only Christians.<br />
<br />
Generally, to be a Freemason, one must: <br />
<br />
# be a man, if joining the majority of Masonic jurisdictions, or a woman, if joining a jurisdiction with women's Lodges (unless joining a co-Masonic jurisdiction with no gender requirement), <br />
# believe in a "Supreme Being", or, in some jurisdictions, a "Creative Principle" (unless joining a jurisdiction with no religious requirement), <br />
# be at least the minimum age (18-25 years depending on the jurisdiction), <br />
# be of sound mind, body and of good morals, and <br />
# be free (or "born free", ''i.e.'' not born a slave or bondsman). <br />
<br />
Traditionally membership was limited to men only, and the inclusion of women is still a matter of controversy in many jurisdictions. The "free born" requirement does not come up in modern Lodges, and there is no indication that it would ever be enforced, but remains there for historical reasons. The "sound body" requirement is today generally taken to mean physically capable of taking part in Lodge rituals, and most Lodges today are quite flexible in accommodating disabled candidates.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry upholds the principles of "Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth" (or in France: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"). It teaches moral lessons through rituals. Members working through the rituals are taught by "degrees". Freemasons are also commonly involved in public service and charity work, as well as providing a social outlet for their members. There is considerable variance in the emphasis on these different aspects of Masonry around the world. In Continental Europe, the philosophical side of Freemasonry is more emphasized, while in Britain, North America, and the English-speaking parts of the world, the charity, service and social club aspects are more emphasized.<br />
<br />
While Freemasonry as an organization does not directly involve itself in politics, its members have tended over the years to support certain kinds of political causes with which they have become associated in the public eye: the separation of Church and State, the establishment of secular public schools, and democratic revolutions (in the American United States and French France on a smaller scale, but on a larger scale in other places such as Mexico, Brazil, and repeatedly in Italy).<br />
<br />
Many organizations with various religious and political purposes have been inspired by Freemasonry, and are sometimes confused with it, such as the Protestant Loyal Orange Association and the 19th century Italian Carbonari, which pursued Liberalism and Italian Unity. Many other purely fraternal organizations, too numerous to mention, have also been inspired by Masonry to a greater or lesser extent.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry is often called a "secret society", and in fact is considered by many to be the very prototype for such societies. Many Masons say that it is more accurately described as a "society with secrets". The degree of secrecy varies widely around the world. In English-speaking countries, most Masons are completely public with their affiliation, Masonic buildings are clearly marked, and meeting times are generally a matter of public record. In other countries, where Freemasonry has been more recently, or is even currently, suppressed by the government, secrecy may be practiced more in earnest (again, depending greatly on the particular country). Even in the English-speaking world, the precise details of the rituals are not made public, and Freemasons have a system of secret modes of recognition, such as the Masonic secret grip, by which Masons can recognize each other "in the dark as well as in the light," and which are universally kept strictly secret. (Although these "secrets" have been available in printed exposes and anti-Masonic literature for many years.)<br />
<br />
==Criticism and repression==<br />
<br />
Freemasonry has been a long-time favorite target of conspiracy conspiracy theorists, who see it as an occult and evil power, often associated with Judaism, and usually either bent on world domination, or already secretly in control of world politics.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry is almost universally banned in totalitarian states. In 1925, it was outlawed in Fascist Italy. Allegedly in Nazi Germany, Freemasons were sent to concentration camps and all Masonic Lodges were ordered shut down. German Masons used the blue forget-me-not as a secret means of recognition and as a substitute for the traditional (and too-easily-recognized) square and compasses. According to some interpretations of canon law, Roman Catholics are forbidden to become Freemasons by their church, though Freemasons do not bar Roman Catholics from becoming members. Freemasonry is also discouraged by some religious denominations of Protestantism. <br />
<br />
In modern democracies, Freemasonry is occasionally accused of being a sort of club, or network, where a lot of influence peddling, and perhaps illegal dealings, take place. In the early 1800s, William Morgan disappeared after threatening to expose Freemasonry's secrets, causing some to claim that he had been murdered by Masons. In Italy, in the 1970s, the P2 lodge was investigated in the wake of a financial scandal and a suspicious death. As a result, the lodge was expelled from Italian Masonry (although it continued to function independently). In Nice, France, the head prosecutor accused some judges and other judicial personnel of deliberately stalling or refusing to elucidate cases involving Masons. In the 1990s in Britain, the Labour Party government tried unsuccessfully to pass a law requiring all public officials who were Masons to make their affiliation public.<br />
<br />
: ''See also: Anti-Masonry, United States Anti-Masonic Party.''<br />
<br />
== Ritual and symbols ==<br />
<br />
The Freemasons rely heavily on the architectural symbolism of the Medieval "operative" Masons who actually worked in Rock stone. One of their principal symbols is the "square and compasses", tools of the trade, so arranged as to form a quadrilateral. The square is sometimes said to represent matter, and the compasses spirit or mind. Alternatively, the square might be said to represent the world of the concrete, or the measure of objective reality, while the compasses represent abstraction, or subjective judgment, and so forth (Freemasonry being non-dogmatic, there is no written-in-stone interpretation for any of these symbols). The compasses straddle the square, representing the interdependence between the two. In the space between the two, there is optionally placed a symbol of metaphysical significance. Sometimes, this is a blazing star or other symbol of Light, representing Truth or knowledge. Alternatively, there is often a letter "G" placed there, usually said to represent "God and/or Geometry". <br />
<br />
The square and compasses are displayed at all Masonic meetings, along with the open "Volume of the Sacred Law (or Lore)" (VSL). In English-speaking countries, this is usually a Bible, but it can be whatever book of inspiration or scripture that the members of a particular Lodge or jurisdiction feel they draw on--whether the Bible, the Koran, or other Volumes. In many French Lodges, the Masonic Constitutions are used. In a few cases, a blank book has been used, where the religious makeup of a Lodge was too diverse to permit an easy choice of VSL. In addition to its role as a symbol of written wisdom, inspiration, and sometimes as the revealed will of the Deity, the VSL is what Masonic obligations are taken upon.<br />
<br />
Much of Masonic symbolism is mathematical in nature, and in particular geometrical, which is probably a reason Freemasonry has attracted so many rationalists (such as Voltaire, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Benjamin Franklin, Mark Twain and many others). No particular metaphysical theory is advanced by Freemasonry, however, although there seems to be some influence from the Pythagoreans, from Neo-Platonism, and from early modern Rationalism.<br />
<br />
In keeping with the geometrical and architectural theme of Freemasonry, the Supreme Being (or God, or Creative Principle) is sometimes also referred to in Masonic ritual as "the Grand Geometrician", or the "Great Architect of the Universe". Freemasons use a variety of labels for this concept, often abbreviated "G.A.O.T.U.", in order to avoid the idea that they are talking about any one religion's particular God or God-like concept.<br />
<br />
There are three initial "degrees" of Freemasonry: (1) Entered Apprentice, (2) Fellow Craft and (3) Master Mason. One works through each degree by taking part in a ritual, essentially a medieval mortality Play, in which one plays a role, along with members of the Lodge that one is joining. The setting is Biblical--the building of the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem--although the stories themselves are not directly from the Bible, and not intended to be necessarily Jewish or Christian in nature. Nothing supernatural happens in these stories. The Temple can be taken to represent the "temple" of the individual human being, that of the human community, or of the entire universe.<br />
<br />
As one works through the degrees, one studies the lessons and interprets them for oneself. There are as many ways to interpret the rituals as there are Masons, and no Mason may dictate to any other Mason how he is to interpret them. No particular truths are espoused, but a common structure--speaking symbolically to universal human archetypes--provides for each Mason a means to come to his own answers to life's important questions. Freemasons working through the degrees are often (especially in Continental Europe) asked to prepare papers on related philosophical topics, and present lectures. <br />
<br />
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a Freemason, and his opera, The Magic Flute, makes extensive use of Masonic symbolism. Two books that give a general feel for the symbolism and its interpretation are:<br />
<br />
# "Freemasonry: A Journey Through Ritual and Symbol" by W.K. MacNulty, Thames & Hudson, London, 1991.<br />
# "Symbols of Freemasonry" by D. Beresniak and L. Hamani, Assouline, Paris, 2000.<br />
<br />
===Lodges===<br />
Contrary to popular belief, Freemasons meet ''as'' a ''Lodge'', and not ''in'' a lodge. (This is similar to the distinction made by Christians who meet ''as'' a ''church'', with the church ''building'' associated with the meeting of the faithful.) <br />
<br />
The ''operative'' lodges constructed a lodge building adjacent to the work site where the masons could meet for instruction and social contact. Normally, this was on the southern side of the site (in Europe, the side with the sun warming the stones during the day.) The social part of the building was on the southern side, hence the social gathering of the lodge is still called ''the South''.<br />
<br />
Early ''speculative'' lodges met in taverns and other convenient public meeting places, and employed a Tyler to guard the door from both malicious and simply curious people.<br />
<br />
Lodge buildings have for many years been known as a ''temple''. In many countries this term has now been replaced by ''Masonic Centre''. (See also reference to the Shriners and their Temples. Until 2003-4, the Oscars were held at the Shriners temple/auditorium in Los Angeles.)<br />
<br />
===Freemasonry in the language===<br />
An expression often used in Masonic circles is "to be on the square", meaning to be a reliable sort of person, and this has entered common usage. Other phrases from Freemasonry in common use include "meeting on the level" (without regard to social, economic, religious or cultural differences). The practice of Freemasonry is referred to amongst its members as "The Craft".<br />
<br />
== Organizational structure ==<br />
<br />
There are a great many different "jurisdictions" of Freemasonry, each sovereign and independent of the others, and usually defined according to a geographic territory. There is thus no central Masonic authority, although each jurisdiction maintains a list of other jurisdictions that it formally "recognizes". If the other jurisdiction reciprocates the recognition, the two jurisdictions are said to be "in amity", which permits the members of the one jurisdiction to attend closed meetings of the other jurisdiction's Lodges, and vice-versa. Generally speaking, to be recognized by another jurisdiction, one must (at least) meet that jurisdiction's requirements for "regularity". This generally means that one must have in place, at least, the "ancient landmarks" of Freemasonry... the essential characteristics considered to be universal to Freemasonry in any culture. In keeping with the decentralized and non-dogmatic nature of Freemasonry, however, there is no universally accepted list of landmarks, and even jurisdictions in amity with each other often have completely different ideas as to what those landmarks are. Many jurisdictions take no official position at all as to what the landmarks are.<br />
<br />
There is no tidy way to split jurisdictions into separate camps. For instance, jurisdiction A might recognize B, which recognizes C, which does not recognize A. In addition, the geographical territory of one jurisdiction may overlap with another's, which may affect their relations, for purely territorial reasons. In other cases, one jurisdiction may overlook irregularities in another due simply to a desire to maintain friendly relations. Also, a jurisdiction may be formally affiliated with one tradition, while maintaining informal ties with the other. For all these reasons, labels like "Anglo" and "Continental" must be taken only as rough indicators, not as any kind of clear designation.<br />
<br />
The ruling authority of a Masonic jurisdiction is usually called a "Grand Lodge", or sometimes a "Grand Orient". These normally correspond to a single country, although their territory can be broader or narrower than that (in North America, each state and province has its own Grand Lodge). The oldest jurisdiction in the Anglo branch of Freemasonry is the [http://www.grand-lodge.org/ United Grand Lodge of England] (UGLE), founded in 1717. Its headquarters are at Freemasons Hall, Great Queen Street, London. The oldest in the Continental branch is the [http://www.godf.org/ Grand Orient de France] (GOdF), founded in 1728. At one time, these branches recognized each other, but most jurisdictions cut off formal relations with the GOdF sometime after it started accepting atheists in 1877. In most Latin countries, as well as in Belgium, the French style of Freemasonry predominates. The rest of the world, accounting for the bulk of Freemasonry, tends to follow the English lead.<br />
<br />
===Freemasonry's "appendant bodies"===<br />
Freemasonry is associated with several "appendant bodies", such as the Scottish Rite, the York Rite, the Swedish Rite, the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine (Shriners), the Mystic Order of Veiled Prophets of the Enchanted Realm (Grotto), the Tall Cedars of Lebanon, and the [http://mill-valley.freemasonry.biz/gordian-knot-order.htm Ancient and Heroic Order of the Gordian Knot], among numerous others, all of which tend to expand on the teachings of Freemasonry--often with additional higher degrees--while improving their members and society as a whole. Different jurisdictions vary in how they define their relationship with such bodies. Some of these organizations may have additional religious requirements, compared to Freemasonry proper (or "BCraft Masonry"), since they elaborate on Masonic teachings from a particular perspective.<br />
<br />
In addition to appendant bodies, Freemasonry has relations with several organizations that, while not explicitly Masonic, do have Masonic membership as a prerequisite for membership. Eminent among these is the invitational Masonic research group, Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (S.R.I.A. or Soc. Ros.), the Masonic Rosicrucian society, which has branches throughout the world. A past Supreme Magus of the Soc. Ros. was William Wynn Westcott, one of the founders of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. The S.R.I.A. is known in America as the Societas Rosicruciana in Civitatibus Foederatis (S.R.I.C.F.), the "Rosicrucian Society of the United States".<br />
<br />
There are also certain youth organizations (mainly North American) which are associated with Freemasonry, but are not necessarily Masonic in their content, such as the Order of DeMolay (for boys aged 12-21), the Job's Daughters and the International Order of the Rainbow for Girls (for girls 11-20).<br />
<br />
====Scottish Rite of Freemasonry====<br />
The following is the structure of Freemasonic degrees for the Scottish Rite:<br />
<br />
<br>Note. group titles apply to degrees ''above''.<br />
:33° Inspector General<br />
*'''Supreme Council'''<br />
:32° Master of the Royal Secret <br />
:31° Inspector Inquisitor<br />
*'''Consistory'''<br />
:30° Knight Kadosh<br />
:29° Scottish Knight of Saint Andrew<br />
:28° Knight of the Sun (Prince Adept)<br />
:27° Knight Commander of the Temple<br />
:26° Prince of Mercy<br />
:25° Knight of the Brazen Serpent<br />
:24° Prince of the Tabernacle<br />
:23° Chief of the Tabernacle<br />
:22° Knight of the Royal Axe (Prince of Libanus)<br />
:21° Noachite, or Prussian Knight<br />
:20° Master of the Symbolic Lodge<br />
:19° Grand Pontiff<br />
*'''Council of Kadosh'''<br />
:18° Knight of the Rose Croix<br />
:17° Knight of the East and West<br />
:16° Prince of Jerusalem<br />
:15° Knight of the East, of the Sword or the Eagle<br />
*'''Rose Croix'''<br />
:14° Perfect Elu (Grand Elect, Perfect and Sublime Mason)<br />
:13° Royal Arch of Solomon (Knight of the Ninth Arch)<br />
:12° Grand Master Architect<br />
:11° Elu of the Twelve <br />
:10° Elu of the Fifteen<br />
:9° Elu of the Nine<br />
:8° Intendant of the Building<br />
:7° Provost and Judge<br />
:6° Intimate Secretary<br />
:5° Perfect Master<br />
:4° Secret Master<br />
*'''Lodge of Perfection'''<br />
:3° Master Mason<br />
:2° FellowCraft<br />
:1° Entered Apprentice<br />
*'''Blue Lodge or Craft Lodge'''<br />
<br />
== History of Freemasonry==<br />
<br />
''Main article: History of Freemasonry''<br />
<br />
Freemasonry has been said to be an institutional outgrowth of the medieval guilds of stonemasons (1), a direct descendant of the "Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem" (the Knights Templar)(2), an offshoot of the ancient Mystery schools(1), an administrative arm of the Priory of Sion(3), the Roman Collegia(1), the Comacine masters(1), intellectual descendants of Noah(1), and to have many other various and sundry origins. Others will claim that it dates back only to the late 17th century, and has no real connections at all to earlier organizations. These theories are noted in numerous different texts, and the following are but examples pulled from a sea of books:<br />
<br />
# In "A History of Freemasonry" by H.L. Haywood and James E. Craig, pub. ''circa'' 1927<br />
# In "The Holy Blood and The Holy Grail" by Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln, pub. 1982<br />
# In "Born in Blood" By John Robinson, pub. 1989<br />
<br />
Much of this is highly speculative, and the precise origins of Freemasonry may be lost in history. It is likely that Freemasonry is not a straightforward outgrowth of medieval guilds of stonemasons, for numerous reasons well documented in "Born in Blood" by John Robinson. Amongst the reasons for this conclusion are the fact that Stonemason's guilds do not appear to predate reasonable estimates for the time of Freemasonry's origin, that stonemasons lived near their worksite and thus had no need for secret signs to identify themselves, and that the "Ancient Charges" of Freemasonry are nonsensical when thought of as being rules for a Stonemason's guild.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry is said by some, especially amongst Masons practising the York Rite, to have existed even at the time of King Athelstan of England, in the 10th century C.E. Athelstan is said by some to have been converted to Christianity in York, and to have issued the first Charter to the Masonic Lodges there. This story is not currently substantiated (the dynasty had already been Christian for centuries).<br />
<br />
Some critics and members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) consider the ordinances performed in LDS temples (believed by adherents to be revelation from God to Joseph Smith) similar to elements in the masonic rituals. Mormon apologists say this similarity may be because the Masonic rituals are descended from those given by God at the Temple of Solomon, and still contain many of the original truths.<br />
<br />
A more historically reliable (although still not unassailable) source asserting the antiquity of Freemasonry is the Halliwell Manuscript or Regius Poem, which is believed to date from ''ca.'' 1390, and which makes reference to several concepts and phrases similar to those found in Freemasonry. The manuscript itself refers to an earlier document, of which it seems to be an elaboration.<br />
<br />
It seems reasonable to suppose that, whatever its precise origins, Freemasonry provided a haven for the unorthodox and their sympathizers during a time when such activity could result in one's death, and that this has something to do with the tradition of secret meetings and handshakes. As the Middle Ages gave way to the Modern Age, the need for secrecy subsided, and Freemasons began to openly declare their association with the fraternity, which began to organize itself more formally. In 1717, four Lodges which met at the "Apple-Tree Tavern, the Crown Ale-House near Drury Lane, the Goose and Gridiron in St. Paul's Churchyard, and the Rummer and Grapes Tavern in Westminster" in London, England (as recounted in (2)) combined together and formed the first public Grand Lodge, the Premier Grand Lodge of England (PGLE). The years following saw Grand Lodges open throughout Europe, as the new Freemasonry spread rapidly. How much of this was the spreading of Freemasonry itself, and how much was the public organization of pre-existing secret lodges, is not possible to say with certainty. The PGLE in the beginning did not have the current three degrees, but only the first two. The third degree appeared, so far as we know, around 1725.<br />
<br />
Opinions about the origins, objectives and future of Freemasonry remain controversial from the times of its inception to our times. For example, Shoko Asahara, founder of the controversial Japanese religious group Aum Shinrikyo, has prophesized in some of his sermons that "in the future, Freemasonry will merge into united stream" with Aum Shinrikyo.<br />
<br />
According to Sir Richard Burton, "Sufi-ism [was] the Eastern parent of Freemasonry." (See, F. Hitchman, ''Burton,'' Volume 1, p. 286) The possibility that Burton was correct is examined in detail by Idries Shah in his book entitled ''The Sufis'', beginning on page 205.<br />
<br />
== Women in Freemasonry ==<br />
<br />
The position of women within Freemasonry is complex. Traditionally, only men could be made Freemasons. In Britain and France, and most other countries, women generally join "co-Masonic" Lodges, such as those under the international jurisdiction Le Droit Humain (LDH), which admit both men and women, or they join Lodges under local jurisdictions that admit only women. In North America, it is more common for women not to become Freemasons ''per se'', but to join an associated body with its own, separate traditions, the Order of the Eastern Star (OES), which admits only male Freemasons and their female relatives. In the Netherlands, there is a completely separate, although allied, sorority for women, the Order of Weavers (OOW), which uses symbols from weaving rather than stonemasonry.<br />
<br />
== The two great schisms of Freemasonry (1753 and 1877) ==<br />
<br />
The PGLE (Premier Grand Lodge of England), along with those jurisdictions with which it was in amity, later came to be known colloquially as the "Moderns", to distinguish them from a newer, rival group of Freemasonry, known as the "Antients." The Antients broke away and formed their own Grand Lodge in 1753, prompted by the PGLE's making changes to the secret modes of recognition. Tensions between the two groups were very high at times. Benjamin Franklin was a "Modern" and a deist, for instance, but by the time he died, his Lodge had gone "Antient", and would no longer recognize him as one of their own, declining even to give him a Masonic funeral (see "Revolutionary Brotherhood", by Steven C. Bullock, Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1996).<br />
<br />
The schism was healed in the years following 1813, when the competing Grand Lodges were amalgamated, by virtue of a delicately worded compromise which left English Masonry clearly not Christian, returned the modes of recognition to their pre-1753 form, kept Freemasonry ''per se'' as consisting of three degrees only, but which was ambiguously worded so as to allow the Moderns to think of the Antient Royal Arch degree as an optional higher degree, while still allowing the Antients to view it as the completion of the third degree (see [http://freemasonry.org/psoc/pragmatic.htm]).<br />
<br />
Because both the Antients and the Moderns had "daughter" Lodges throughout the world, and because many of those Lodges still exist, there is a great deal of variability in the Ritual used today, even between UGLE-recognized jurisdictions. Most Lodges conduct their Work in accordance with an agreed-upon single "Rite," such as the "York Rite" (which is popular in the United States), or the "Canadian Rite" (which is, in some ways, a concordance between the Rites used by the "Antients" and "Moderns").<br />
<br />
The second great schism in Freemasonry occurred in the years following 1877, when the GOdF started accepting atheists unreservedly. While the issue of atheism is probably the greatest single factor in the split with the GOdF, the English also point to the French recognition of women's Masonry and co-Masonry, as well as the tendency of French Masons to be more willing to discuss religion and politics in Lodge. While the French curtail such discussion, they do not ban it as outright as do the English (see [http://bessel.org/masrec/france.htm]). The schism between the two branches has occasionally been breached for short periods of time, especially during the First World War when American Masons overseas wanted to be able to visit French Lodges (see [http://www.bessel.org/recfranc.htm]).<br />
<br />
Concerning religious requirements, the oldest constitution of Freemasonry (that of Anderson, 1723) says only that a Mason "will never be a stupid Atheist nor an irreligious Libertine" if he "rightly understands the Art". The only religion required was "that Religion in which all Men agree, leaving their particular Opinions to themselves" ([http://www.2be1ask1.com/library/anderson.html]). Masons disagree as to whether "stupid" and "irreligious" are meant as necessary or as accidental modifiers of "atheist" and "libertine". It is possible the ambiguity is intentional. In 1815, the newly amalgamated UGLE changed Anderson's constitutions to include more orthodox overtones: "Let a man's religion or mode of worship be what it may, he is not excluded from the Order, provided he believes in the glorious Architect of heaven and earth, and practices the sacred duties of morality." The English enforce this with a requirement for belief in a Supreme Being, and in his revealed will. While these requirements can still be interpreted in a non-theistic manner, they made it more difficult for unorthodox believers to enter the fraternity.<br />
<br />
In 1849, the GOdF followed the English lead by adopting the "Supreme Being" requirement, but there was increasing pressure in Latin countries to openly admit atheists. There was an attempt at a compromise in 1875, by allowing the alternative phrase "Creative Principle" (which was less theistic-sounding than "Supreme Being"), but this was ultimately not enough for the GOdF, and in 1877 they went back to having no religious entrance requirements, adopting the original Anderson document of 1723 as their official Constitutions. They also created a modified ritual that made no direct verbal reference to the G.A.O.T.U. (although, as a symbol, it was arguably still present). This new Rite did not replace the older ones, but was added as an alternative (European jurisdictions in general tend not to restrict themselves to a single Rite, like most North American jurisdictions, but offer a menu of Rites, from which their Lodges can choose.)<br />
<br />
==Cultural references==<br />
* The Freemasons are spoofed in a Simpsons sketch as ''The Stonecutters'', a secret organization that controls everything from NASA to the Academy Awards.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
*Wikipedia. (2004). [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemasonry Freemasonry]. Retrieved Sept. 21, 2004.<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.grand-lodge.org/ United Grand Lodge of England] (UGLE)<br />
*[http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/ PS Review of Freemasonry]<br />
*[http://www.godf.org/ Grand Orient de France] (GOdF)<br />
*[http://www.masonicinfo.com/famous.htm Famous Freemasons]<br />
*[http://www.internetloge.de/hotlinks/hyplink.htm Masonic Link Collection]<br />
*[http://internetloge.de/masmon/masmon.htm WEBB'S FREEMASON'S MONITOR - including the first three degrees]<br />
*[http://internetloge.de/masmanu/masmanu.htm Robert Macoy: THE MASONIC MANUAL - A pocket Companion for the Initiated]<br />
*[http://internetloge.de/massym/massym.htm Albert G. Mackey, M. D.: SYMBOLISM OF FREEMASONRY]<br />
*[http://www.internetloge.de/kunst/kunstabe.htm Masonic Art]<br />
[[Category:Organizations]]<br />
{{se_freemasonry}}</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=Freemasonry&diff=4858Freemasonry2005-07-09T14:02:47Z<p>Jachin: /* Prince Hall Masonry */ Removed as it has no relevance to Thelemic / Esoteric themes.</p>
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<div>{{thelema}}<br />
<br />
'''Freemasonry''' is a worldwide fraternal organization. Its members are joined together by high ideals, of both a moral and metaphysical nature (and, in the majority of branches, by a common belief in a Supreme Being). Freemasonry is an "esoteric art," in that certain aspects of its internal work are not generally revealed to the public. Masons give numerous reasons for this, one of which is that Freemasonry uses an initiatory system of degrees to explore ethical and philosophical issues, and this system is less effective if the observer knows beforehand what will happen. It often calls itself "a peculiar system of morality veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols." <br />
<br />
==Membership==<br />
<br />
Freemasons are expected to exhibit the utmost tolerance both in "Lodge" (the meeting place of a group of Freemasons) and in their daily lives. Freemasonry will thus accept members from almost any religion, including all denominations of Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and so forth. Exactly how far this goes depends on the particular branch or "jurisdiction" of Freemasonry one is dealing with. Deists have traditionally been accepted. In Lodges derived from the Grand Orient of France and in certain other groups of Lodges, atheists and agnostics are also accepted, without qualification. Most other branches currently require a belief in a Supreme Being. But even there, one finds a high degree of non-dogmatism, and the phrase "Supreme Being" is often given a very broad interpretation, usually allowing Deism and often even allowing naturalistic views of "God/Nature" in the tradition of Baruch Spinoza and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (himself a Freemason), or non-theistic views of Ultimate Reality or Cosmic Oneness, such as found in some Eastern religions and in Western idealism (or for that matter, in modern cosmology). In some other (mostly English-speaking) jurisdictions, Freemasonry is not as tolerant of naturalism as it was in the 18th century, and specific religious requirements with more theistic and orthodox overtones have been added since the early 19th century, including (mostly in North America) belief in the immortality of the soul. The Freemasonry that predominates in Scandinavia, known as the Swedish Rite, accepts only Christians.<br />
<br />
Generally, to be a Freemason, one must: <br />
<br />
# be a man, if joining the majority of Masonic jurisdictions, or a woman, if joining a jurisdiction with women's Lodges (unless joining a co-Masonic jurisdiction with no gender requirement), <br />
# believe in a "Supreme Being", or, in some jurisdictions, a "Creative Principle" (unless joining a jurisdiction with no religious requirement), <br />
# be at least the minimum age (18-25 years depending on the jurisdiction), <br />
# be of sound mind, body and of good morals, and <br />
# be free (or "born free", ''i.e.'' not born a slave or bondsman). <br />
<br />
Traditionally membership was limited to men only, and the inclusion of women is still a matter of controversy in many jurisdictions. The "free born" requirement does not come up in modern Lodges, and there is no indication that it would ever be enforced, but remains there for historical reasons. The "sound body" requirement is today generally taken to mean physically capable of taking part in Lodge rituals, and most Lodges today are quite flexible in accommodating disabled candidates.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry upholds the principles of "Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth" (or in France: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"). It teaches moral lessons through rituals. Members working through the rituals are taught by "degrees". Freemasons are also commonly involved in public service and charity work, as well as providing a social outlet for their members. There is considerable variance in the emphasis on these different aspects of Masonry around the world. In Continental Europe, the philosophical side of Freemasonry is more emphasized, while in Britain, North America, and the English-speaking parts of the world, the charity, service and social club aspects are more emphasized.<br />
<br />
While Freemasonry as an organization does not directly involve itself in politics, its members have tended over the years to support certain kinds of political causes with which they have become associated in the public eye: the separation of Church and State, the establishment of secular public schools, and democratic revolutions (in the American United States and French France on a smaller scale, but on a larger scale in other places such as Mexico, Brazil, and repeatedly in Italy).<br />
<br />
Many organizations with various religious and political purposes have been inspired by Freemasonry, and are sometimes confused with it, such as the Protestant Loyal Orange Association and the 19th century Italian Carbonari, which pursued Liberalism and Italian Unity. Many other purely fraternal organizations, too numerous to mention, have also been inspired by Masonry to a greater or lesser extent.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry is often called a "secret society", and in fact is considered by many to be the very prototype for such societies. Many Masons say that it is more accurately described as a "society with secrets". The degree of secrecy varies widely around the world. In English-speaking countries, most Masons are completely public with their affiliation, Masonic buildings are clearly marked, and meeting times are generally a matter of public record. In other countries, where Freemasonry has been more recently, or is even currently, suppressed by the government, secrecy may be practiced more in earnest (again, depending greatly on the particular country). Even in the English-speaking world, the precise details of the rituals are not made public, and Freemasons have a system of secret modes of recognition, such as the Masonic secret grip, by which Masons can recognize each other "in the dark as well as in the light," and which are universally kept strictly secret. (Although these "secrets" have been available in printed exposes and anti-Masonic literature for many years.)<br />
<br />
==Criticism and repression==<br />
<br />
Freemasonry has been a long-time favorite target of conspiracy conspiracy theorists, who see it as an occult and evil power, often associated with Judaism, and usually either bent on world domination, or already secretly in control of world politics.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry is almost universally banned in totalitarian states. In 1925, it was outlawed in Fascist Italy. Allegedly in Nazi Germany, Freemasons were sent to concentration camps and all Masonic Lodges were ordered shut down. German Masons used the blue forget-me-not as a secret means of recognition and as a substitute for the traditional (and too-easily-recognized) square and compasses. According to some interpretations of canon law, Roman Catholics are forbidden to become Freemasons by their church, though Freemasons do not bar Roman Catholics from becoming members. Freemasonry is also discouraged by some religious denominations of Protestantism. <br />
<br />
In modern democracies, Freemasonry is occasionally accused of being a sort of club, or network, where a lot of influence peddling, and perhaps illegal dealings, take place. In the early 1800s, William Morgan disappeared after threatening to expose Freemasonry's secrets, causing some to claim that he had been murdered by Masons. In Italy, in the 1970s, the P2 lodge was investigated in the wake of a financial scandal and a suspicious death. As a result, the lodge was expelled from Italian Masonry (although it continued to function independently). In Nice, France, the head prosecutor accused some judges and other judicial personnel of deliberately stalling or refusing to elucidate cases involving Masons. In the 1990s in Britain, the Labour Party government tried unsuccessfully to pass a law requiring all public officials who were Masons to make their affiliation public.<br />
<br />
: ''See also: Anti-Masonry, United States Anti-Masonic Party.''<br />
<br />
== Ritual and symbols ==<br />
<br />
The Freemasons rely heavily on the architectural symbolism of the Medieval "operative" Masons who actually worked in Rock stone. One of their principal symbols is the "square and compasses", tools of the trade, so arranged as to form a quadrilateral. The square is sometimes said to represent matter, and the compasses spirit or mind. Alternatively, the square might be said to represent the world of the concrete, or the measure of objective reality, while the compasses represent abstraction, or subjective judgment, and so forth (Freemasonry being non-dogmatic, there is no written-in-stone interpretation for any of these symbols). The compasses straddle the square, representing the interdependence between the two. In the space between the two, there is optionally placed a symbol of metaphysical significance. Sometimes, this is a blazing star or other symbol of Light, representing Truth or knowledge. Alternatively, there is often a letter "G" placed there, usually said to represent "God and/or Geometry". <br />
<br />
The square and compasses are displayed at all Masonic meetings, along with the open "Volume of the Sacred Law (or Lore)" (VSL). In English-speaking countries, this is usually a Bible, but it can be whatever book of inspiration or scripture that the members of a particular Lodge or jurisdiction feel they draw on--whether the Bible, the Koran, or other Volumes. In many French Lodges, the Masonic Constitutions are used. In a few cases, a blank book has been used, where the religious makeup of a Lodge was too diverse to permit an easy choice of VSL. In addition to its role as a symbol of written wisdom, inspiration, and sometimes as the revealed will of the Deity, the VSL is what Masonic obligations are taken upon.<br />
<br />
Much of Masonic symbolism is mathematical in nature, and in particular geometrical, which is probably a reason Freemasonry has attracted so many rationalists (such as Voltaire, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Benjamin Franklin, Mark Twain and many others). No particular metaphysical theory is advanced by Freemasonry, however, although there seems to be some influence from the Pythagoreans, from Neo-Platonism, and from early modern Rationalism.<br />
<br />
In keeping with the geometrical and architectural theme of Freemasonry, the Supreme Being (or God, or Creative Principle) is sometimes also referred to in Masonic ritual as "the Grand Geometrician", or the "Great Architect of the Universe". Freemasons use a variety of labels for this concept, often abbreviated "G.A.O.T.U.", in order to avoid the idea that they are talking about any one religion's particular God or God-like concept.<br />
<br />
There are three initial "degrees" of Freemasonry: (1) Entered Apprentice, (2) Fellow Craft and (3) Master Mason. One works through each degree by taking part in a ritual, essentially a medieval mortality Play, in which one plays a role, along with members of the Lodge that one is joining. The setting is Biblical--the building of the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem--although the stories themselves are not directly from the Bible, and not intended to be necessarily Jewish or Christian in nature. Nothing supernatural happens in these stories. The Temple can be taken to represent the "temple" of the individual human being, that of the human community, or of the entire universe.<br />
<br />
As one works through the degrees, one studies the lessons and interprets them for oneself. There are as many ways to interpret the rituals as there are Masons, and no Mason may dictate to any other Mason how he is to interpret them. No particular truths are espoused, but a common structure--speaking symbolically to universal human archetypes--provides for each Mason a means to come to his own answers to life's important questions. Freemasons working through the degrees are often (especially in Continental Europe) asked to prepare papers on related philosophical topics, and present lectures. <br />
<br />
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a Freemason, and his opera, The Magic Flute, makes extensive use of Masonic symbolism. Two books that give a general feel for the symbolism and its interpretation are:<br />
<br />
# "Freemasonry: A Journey Through Ritual and Symbol" by W.K. MacNulty, Thames & Hudson, London, 1991.<br />
# "Symbols of Freemasonry" by D. Beresniak and L. Hamani, Assouline, Paris, 2000.<br />
<br />
===Lodges===<br />
Contrary to popular belief, Freemasons meet ''as'' a ''Lodge'', and not ''in'' a lodge. (This is similar to the distinction made by Christians who meet ''as'' a ''church'', with the church ''building'' associated with the meeting of the faithful.) <br />
<br />
The ''operative'' lodges constructed a lodge building adjacent to the work site where the masons could meet for instruction and social contact. Normally, this was on the southern side of the site (in Europe, the side with the sun warming the stones during the day.) The social part of the building was on the southern side, hence the social gathering of the lodge is still called ''the South''.<br />
<br />
Early ''speculative'' lodges met in taverns and other convenient public meeting places, and employed a Tyler to guard the door from both malicious and simply curious people.<br />
<br />
Lodge buildings have for many years been known as a ''temple''. In many countries this term has now been replaced by ''Masonic Centre''. (See also reference to the Shriners and their Temples. Until 2003-4, the Oscars were held at the Shriners temple/auditorium in Los Angeles.)<br />
<br />
===Freemasonry in the language===<br />
An expression often used in Masonic circles is "to be on the square", meaning to be a reliable sort of person, and this has entered common usage. Other phrases from Freemasonry in common use include "meeting on the level" (without regard to social, economic, religious or cultural differences). The practice of Freemasonry is referred to amongst its members as "The Craft".<br />
<br />
== Organizational structure ==<br />
<br />
There are a great many different "jurisdictions" of Freemasonry, each sovereign and independent of the others, and usually defined according to a geographic territory. There is thus no central Masonic authority, although each jurisdiction maintains a list of other jurisdictions that it formally "recognizes". If the other jurisdiction reciprocates the recognition, the two jurisdictions are said to be "in amity", which permits the members of the one jurisdiction to attend closed meetings of the other jurisdiction's Lodges, and vice-versa. Generally speaking, to be recognized by another jurisdiction, one must (at least) meet that jurisdiction's requirements for "regularity". This generally means that one must have in place, at least, the "ancient landmarks" of Freemasonry... the essential characteristics considered to be universal to Freemasonry in any culture. In keeping with the decentralized and non-dogmatic nature of Freemasonry, however, there is no universally accepted list of landmarks, and even jurisdictions in amity with each other often have completely different ideas as to what those landmarks are. Many jurisdictions take no official position at all as to what the landmarks are.<br />
<br />
There is no tidy way to split jurisdictions into separate camps. For instance, jurisdiction A might recognize B, which recognizes C, which does not recognize A. In addition, the geographical territory of one jurisdiction may overlap with another's, which may affect their relations, for purely territorial reasons. In other cases, one jurisdiction may overlook irregularities in another due simply to a desire to maintain friendly relations. Also, a jurisdiction may be formally affiliated with one tradition, while maintaining informal ties with the other. For all these reasons, labels like "Anglo" and "Continental" must be taken only as rough indicators, not as any kind of clear designation.<br />
<br />
The ruling authority of a Masonic jurisdiction is usually called a "Grand Lodge", or sometimes a "Grand Orient". These normally correspond to a single country, although their territory can be broader or narrower than that (in North America, each state and province has its own Grand Lodge). The oldest jurisdiction in the Anglo branch of Freemasonry is the [http://www.grand-lodge.org/ United Grand Lodge of England] (UGLE), founded in 1717. Its headquarters are at Freemasons Hall, Great Queen Street, London. The oldest in the Continental branch is the [http://www.godf.org/ Grand Orient de France] (GOdF), founded in 1728. At one time, these branches recognized each other, but most jurisdictions cut off formal relations with the GOdF sometime after it started accepting atheists in 1877. In most Latin countries, as well as in Belgium, the French style of Freemasonry predominates. The rest of the world, accounting for the bulk of Freemasonry, tends to follow the English lead.<br />
<br />
===Freemasonry's "appendant bodies"===<br />
Freemasonry is associated with several "appendant bodies", such as the Scottish Rite, the York Rite, the Swedish Rite, the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine (Shriners), the Mystic Order of Veiled Prophets of the Enchanted Realm (Grotto), the Tall Cedars of Lebanon, and the [http://mill-valley.freemasonry.biz/gordian-knot-order.htm Ancient and Heroic Order of the Gordian Knot], among numerous others, all of which tend to expand on the teachings of Freemasonry--often with additional higher degrees--while improving their members and society as a whole. Different jurisdictions vary in how they define their relationship with such bodies. Some of these organizations may have additional religious requirements, compared to Freemasonry proper (or "BCraft Masonry"), since they elaborate on Masonic teachings from a particular perspective.<br />
<br />
In addition to appendant bodies, Freemasonry has relations with several organizations that, while not explicitly Masonic, do have Masonic membership as a prerequisite for membership. Eminent among these is the invitational Masonic research group, Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (S.R.I.A. or Soc. Ros.), the Masonic Rosicrucian society, which has branches throughout the world. A past Supreme Magus of the Soc. Ros. was William Wynn Westcott, one of the founders of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. The S.R.I.A. is known in America as the Societas Rosicruciana in Civitatibus Foederatis (S.R.I.C.F.), the "Rosicrucian Society of the United States".<br />
<br />
There are also certain youth organizations (mainly North American) which are associated with Freemasonry, but are not necessarily Masonic in their content, such as the Order of DeMolay (for boys aged 12-21), the Job's Daughters and the International Order of the Rainbow for Girls (for girls 11-20).<br />
<br />
====Scottish Rite of Freemasonry====<br />
The following is the structure of Freemasonic degrees for the Scottish Rite:<br />
<br />
<br>Note. group titles apply to degrees ''above''.<br />
:33° Inspector General<br />
*'''Supreme Council'''<br />
:32° Master of the Royal Secret <br />
:31° Inspector Inquisitor<br />
*'''Consistory'''<br />
:30° Knight Kadosh<br />
:29° Scottish Knight of Saint Andrew<br />
:28° Knight of the Sun (Prince Adept)<br />
:27° Knight Commander of the Temple<br />
:26° Prince of Mercy<br />
:25° Knight of the Brazen Serpent<br />
:24° Prince of the Tabernacle<br />
:23° Chief of the Tabernacle<br />
:22° Knight of the Royal Axe (Prince of Libanus)<br />
:21° Noachite, or Prussian Knight<br />
:20° Master of the Symbolic Lodge<br />
:19° Grand Pontiff<br />
*'''Council of Kadosh'''<br />
:18° Knight of the Rose Croix<br />
:17° Knight of the East and West<br />
:16° Prince of Jerusalem<br />
:15° Knight of the East, of the Sword or the Eagle<br />
*'''Rose Croix'''<br />
:14° Perfect Elu (Grand Elect, Perfect and Sublime Mason)<br />
:13° Royal Arch of Solomon (Knight of the Ninth Arch)<br />
:12° Grand Master Architect<br />
:11° Elu of the Twelve <br />
:10° Elu of the Fifteen<br />
:9° Elu of the Nine<br />
:8° Intendant of the Building<br />
:7° Provost and Judge<br />
:6° Intimate Secretary<br />
:5° Perfect Master<br />
:4° Secret Master<br />
*'''Lodge of Perfection'''<br />
:3° Master Mason<br />
:2° FellowCraft<br />
:1° Entered Apprentice<br />
*'''Blue Lodge or Craft Lodge'''<br />
<br />
== History of Freemasonry==<br />
<br />
''Main article: History of Freemasonry''<br />
<br />
Freemasonry has been said to be an institutional outgrowth of the medieval guilds of stonemasons (1), a direct descendant of the "Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem" (the Knights Templar)(2), an offshoot of the ancient Mystery schools(1), an administrative arm of the Priory of Sion(3), the Roman Collegia(1), the Comacine masters(1), intellectual descendants of Noah(1), and to have many other various and sundry origins. Others will claim that it dates back only to the late 17th century, and has no real connections at all to earlier organizations. These theories are noted in numerous different texts, and the following are but examples pulled from a sea of books:<br />
<br />
# In "A History of Freemasonry" by H.L. Haywood and James E. Craig, pub. ''circa'' 1927<br />
# In "The Holy Blood and The Holy Grail" by Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln, pub. 1982<br />
# In "Born in Blood" By John Robinson, pub. 1989<br />
<br />
Much of this is highly speculative, and the precise origins of Freemasonry may be lost in history. It is likely that Freemasonry is not a straightforward outgrowth of medieval guilds of stonemasons, for numerous reasons well documented in "Born in Blood" by John Robinson. Amongst the reasons for this conclusion are the fact that Stonemason's guilds do not appear to predate reasonable estimates for the time of Freemasonry's origin, that stonemasons lived near their worksite and thus had no need for secret signs to identify themselves, and that the "Ancient Charges" of Freemasonry are nonsensical when thought of as being rules for a Stonemason's guild.<br />
<br />
Freemasonry is said by some, especially amongst Masons practising the York Rite, to have existed even at the time of King Athelstan of England, in the 10th century C.E. Athelstan is said by some to have been converted to Christianity in York, and to have issued the first Charter to the Masonic Lodges there. This story is not currently substantiated (the dynasty had already been Christian for centuries).<br />
<br />
Some critics and members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) consider the ordinances performed in LDS temples (believed by adherents to be revelation from God to Joseph Smith) similar to elements in the masonic rituals. Mormon apologists say this similarity may be because the Masonic rituals are descended from those given by God at the Temple of Solomon, and still contain many of the original truths.<br />
<br />
A more historically reliable (although still not unassailable) source asserting the antiquity of Freemasonry is the Halliwell Manuscript or Regius Poem, which is believed to date from ''ca.'' 1390, and which makes reference to several concepts and phrases similar to those found in Freemasonry. The manuscript itself refers to an earlier document, of which it seems to be an elaboration.<br />
<br />
It seems reasonable to suppose that, whatever its precise origins, Freemasonry provided a haven for the unorthodox and their sympathizers during a time when such activity could result in one's death, and that this has something to do with the tradition of secret meetings and handshakes. As the Middle Ages gave way to the Modern Age, the need for secrecy subsided, and Freemasons began to openly declare their association with the fraternity, which began to organize itself more formally. In 1717, four Lodges which met at the "Apple-Tree Tavern, the Crown Ale-House near Drury Lane, the Goose and Gridiron in St. Paul's Churchyard, and the Rummer and Grapes Tavern in Westminster" in London, England (as recounted in (2)) combined together and formed the first public Grand Lodge, the Premier Grand Lodge of England (PGLE). The years following saw Grand Lodges open throughout Europe, as the new Freemasonry spread rapidly. How much of this was the spreading of Freemasonry itself, and how much was the public organization of pre-existing secret lodges, is not possible to say with certainty. The PGLE in the beginning did not have the current three degrees, but only the first two. The third degree appeared, so far as we know, around 1725.<br />
<br />
Opinions about the origins, objectives and future of Freemasonry remain controversial from the times of its inception to our times. For example, Shoko Asahara, founder of the controversial Japanese religious group Aum Shinrikyo, has prophesized in some of his sermons that "in the future, Freemasonry will merge into united stream" with Aum Shinrikyo.<br />
<br />
According to Sir Richard Burton, "Sufi-ism [was] the Eastern parent of Freemasonry." (See, F. Hitchman, ''Burton,'' Volume 1, p. 286) The possibility that Burton was correct is examined in detail by Idries Shah in his book entitled ''The Sufis'', beginning on page 205.<br />
<br />
== Women in Freemasonry ==<br />
<br />
The position of women within Freemasonry is complex. Traditionally, only men could be made Freemasons. This has been changing in the last hundred years, but more quickly in some jurisdictions than others. In Britain and France, and most other countries, women generally join "co-Masonic" Lodges, such as those under the international jurisdiction Le Droit Humain (LDH), which admit both men and women, or they join Lodges under local jurisdictions that admit only women. In North America, it is more common for women not to become Freemasons ''per se'', but to join an associated body with its own, separate traditions, the Order of the Eastern Star (OES), which admits only male Freemasons and their female relatives. In the Netherlands, there is a completely separate, although allied, sorority for women, the Order of Weavers (OOW), which uses symbols from weaving rather than stonemasonry.<br />
<br />
The GOdF and other Continental jurisdictions give full formal recognition to co-Freemasonry and women's Freemasonry. The UGLE and other Anglo jurisdictions do not formally recognize any Masonic body that accepts women, although in many countries they have an understanding and a kind of informal acceptance that such bodies are part of Freemasonry in a larger sense. The UGLE, for instance, has "recognized" (since 1998) two local women's jurisdictions as regular in practice, ''except'' for their inclusion of women, and has indicated that, while not formally recognized, these bodies may be regarded as part of Freemasonry. Thus, the position of women in Freemasonry is rapidly changing in the English-speaking world. While in many cases, North America is following England's lead on the issue of women, the remaining resistance to women in Freemasonry is mostly concentrated there.<br />
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== The two great schisms of Freemasonry (1753 and 1877) ==<br />
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The PGLE (Premier Grand Lodge of England), along with those jurisdictions with which it was in amity, later came to be known colloquially as the "Moderns", to distinguish them from a newer, rival group of Freemasonry, known as the "Antients." The Antients broke away and formed their own Grand Lodge in 1753, prompted by the PGLE's making changes to the secret modes of recognition. Tensions between the two groups were very high at times. Benjamin Franklin was a "Modern" and a deist, for instance, but by the time he died, his Lodge had gone "Antient", and would no longer recognize him as one of their own, declining even to give him a Masonic funeral (see "Revolutionary Brotherhood", by Steven C. Bullock, Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1996).<br />
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The schism was healed in the years following 1813, when the competing Grand Lodges were amalgamated, by virtue of a delicately worded compromise which left English Masonry clearly not Christian, returned the modes of recognition to their pre-1753 form, kept Freemasonry ''per se'' as consisting of three degrees only, but which was ambiguously worded so as to allow the Moderns to think of the Antient Royal Arch degree as an optional higher degree, while still allowing the Antients to view it as the completion of the third degree (see [http://freemasonry.org/psoc/pragmatic.htm]).<br />
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Because both the Antients and the Moderns had "daughter" Lodges throughout the world, and because many of those Lodges still exist, there is a great deal of variability in the Ritual used today, even between UGLE-recognized jurisdictions. Most Lodges conduct their Work in accordance with an agreed-upon single "Rite," such as the "York Rite" (which is popular in the United States), or the "Canadian Rite" (which is, in some ways, a concordance between the Rites used by the "Antients" and "Moderns").<br />
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The second great schism in Freemasonry occurred in the years following 1877, when the GOdF started accepting atheists unreservedly. While the issue of atheism is probably the greatest single factor in the split with the GOdF, the English also point to the French recognition of women's Masonry and co-Masonry, as well as the tendency of French Masons to be more willing to discuss religion and politics in Lodge. While the French curtail such discussion, they do not ban it as outright as do the English (see [http://bessel.org/masrec/france.htm]). The schism between the two branches has occasionally been breached for short periods of time, especially during the First World War when American Masons overseas wanted to be able to visit French Lodges (see [http://www.bessel.org/recfranc.htm]).<br />
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Concerning religious requirements, the oldest constitution of Freemasonry (that of Anderson, 1723) says only that a Mason "will never be a stupid Atheist nor an irreligious Libertine" if he "rightly understands the Art". The only religion required was "that Religion in which all Men agree, leaving their particular Opinions to themselves" ([http://www.2be1ask1.com/library/anderson.html]). Masons disagree as to whether "stupid" and "irreligious" are meant as necessary or as accidental modifiers of "atheist" and "libertine". It is possible the ambiguity is intentional. In 1815, the newly amalgamated UGLE changed Anderson's constitutions to include more orthodox overtones: "Let a man's religion or mode of worship be what it may, he is not excluded from the Order, provided he believes in the glorious Architect of heaven and earth, and practices the sacred duties of morality." The English enforce this with a requirement for belief in a Supreme Being, and in his revealed will. While these requirements can still be interpreted in a non-theistic manner, they made it more difficult for unorthodox believers to enter the fraternity.<br />
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In 1849, the GOdF followed the English lead by adopting the "Supreme Being" requirement, but there was increasing pressure in Latin countries to openly admit atheists. There was an attempt at a compromise in 1875, by allowing the alternative phrase "Creative Principle" (which was less theistic-sounding than "Supreme Being"), but this was ultimately not enough for the GOdF, and in 1877 they went back to having no religious entrance requirements, adopting the original Anderson document of 1723 as their official Constitutions. They also created a modified ritual that made no direct verbal reference to the G.A.O.T.U. (although, as a symbol, it was arguably still present). This new Rite did not replace the older ones, but was added as an alternative (European jurisdictions in general tend not to restrict themselves to a single Rite, like most North American jurisdictions, but offer a menu of Rites, from which their Lodges can choose.)<br />
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==Cultural references==<br />
* The Freemasons are spoofed in a Simpsons sketch as ''The Stonecutters'', a secret organization that controls everything from NASA to the Academy Awards.<br />
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==References==<br />
*Wikipedia. (2004). [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemasonry Freemasonry]. Retrieved Sept. 21, 2004.<br />
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==External links==<br />
*[http://www.grand-lodge.org/ United Grand Lodge of England] (UGLE)<br />
*[http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/ PS Review of Freemasonry]<br />
*[http://www.godf.org/ Grand Orient de France] (GOdF)<br />
*[http://www.masonicinfo.com/famous.htm Famous Freemasons]<br />
*[http://www.internetloge.de/hotlinks/hyplink.htm Masonic Link Collection]<br />
*[http://internetloge.de/masmon/masmon.htm WEBB'S FREEMASON'S MONITOR - including the first three degrees]<br />
*[http://internetloge.de/masmanu/masmanu.htm Robert Macoy: THE MASONIC MANUAL - A pocket Companion for the Initiated]<br />
*[http://internetloge.de/massym/massym.htm Albert G. Mackey, M. D.: SYMBOLISM OF FREEMASONRY]<br />
*[http://www.internetloge.de/kunst/kunstabe.htm Masonic Art]<br />
[[Category:Organizations]]<br />
{{se_freemasonry}}</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=Neopaganism&diff=5249Neopaganism2005-07-09T14:00:57Z<p>Jachin: Creation of Neopaganism Article</p>
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<div>'''Neopaganism''' (sometimes '''Neo-Paganism''', meaning "New Paganism") describes a heterogeneous group of modern [[religion]]s, many of which attempt to revive ancient, mainly [[Europe|European]] pre-[[Christian]] religions. Some Neopagans stress their connections with older forms of [[Paganism]] in terms of "[[underground culture|underground]]" continuity. <br />
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Neopaganist beliefs and practices are extremely diverse, and tend towards [[syncretism|syncretic]] melding of once-diverse practices and beliefs. It has been said that there are as many Neopagan belief systems as there are Neopagans. However, while Neopaganism tends towards individualism, many adherents share a body of common precepts, including a reverence for nature or active ecology, [[Goddess]] and/or [[Horned God]] veneration, use of ancient [[mythology|mythologies]], the belief in "[[magick]]," and often the belief in [[reincarnation]].<br />
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Neopaganism is most commonly associated with mythology originated in the pre-Christian religions of northwestern Europe. However, the term also applies to modern revivals of other cults and belief systems, such as those of [[Isis]], [[Mithra]] and of the [[Religio Romana|state religion]] of ancient [[Rome]], and to non-reconstructionist Pagan belief systems developed within modern times.<br />
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== History of Neopaganism ==<br />
In Germany, a resurgence of interest in pre-Christian, authentically Germanic pagan practices such as [[summer solstice]] festivities were a feature of the [[Völkisch movement]] in the late 19th century, one of the main roots of modern paganism. The late 19th century also saw a renewal of interest in various forms of Western [[occultism]], particularly in [[England]]. During this period several occultist societies were formed such as the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] and the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]]. Several prominent writers and artists were involved in these organizations, including [[William Butler Yeats]], [[Arthur Edward Waite]], and [[Aleister Crowley]].<br />
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Along with these occult organizations, there were other social phenomena such as the interest in [[medium]]ship, which suggest that interest in [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] and other supernatural beliefs were at an all time high in the late 19th century and early 20th century.<br />
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Some evidence suggests that returning colonials and missionaries brought ideas from native traditions home to Britain. In particular the anthropologist Sir [[James George Frazer]]'s ''[[The Golden Bough]]'' (1900) was influential.<br />
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In the [[1920s]] [[Margaret Murray]] theorized that a witchcraft religion existed underground and in secret, and had survived through the religious persecutions and [[Inquisition|Inquisitions]] of the [[Medieval|medieval]] [[Catholicism|Church]]. Most historians reject Murray's theory, as it is based on a similarity between the accounts given by accused witches; this similarity actually derives from the standard set of questions that were used in the interrogation. Murray's theories generated interest reflected in novels by Mitchison ("The Corn King and the Spring Queen") and [[Coven|covens]] were created along Murrayite lines.<br />
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It is likely that this general atmosphere created the circumstances which were necessary for the rise of Wicca. At the very least, it was fertile ground for its introduction.<br />
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In the 1940s [[Gerald Gardner]] claimed to have been initiated into a [[New Forest]] coven led by [[Dorothy Clutterbuck]], an ex-colonial woman returned from [[India]]. Gardner had already written about Malay native customs and now wrote books about [[Wicca]]. The term "Wicca" is still used to refer to the traditions of Neopaganism that adhere closely to Gardner's teachings, or direct offshoots such as the teachings of [[Alex Sanders]]. <br />
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In the USA today [[Wicca]] is sometimes (mis)used loosely to equate with any form of Neopaganism; while [[Wicca]] is by far the largest form of Neopaganism in the US, it is nonetheless a subset of the larger Neopagan movement. This error is common among outsiders and newcomers, less so among those who've been involved with the Neopagan community for significant amounts of time. British based Neopaganism, on the other hand, used to use the term 'Wicca' much more narrowly, as [[Gardnerian Wicca|Gardnerian]] or [[Alexandrian Wicca]]; also, a third generation of Wicca descended from Gardnerian is now flourishing, notably [[Seax-Wica]]. <br />
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However, in Britain today, the term is most commonly associated with a Celtic themed approach. Indeed, Wicca in Britain is now so widespread that the two forms of Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca have been submerged in a wave of modern offshoots, much of it from the United States. Much of this was inspired directly or indirectly by the publication of The Tree by Raymond Buckland, detailing the tradition of [[Seax-Wica]]; prior to this, Wicca had been unpublished and secret in nature. After it, people started creating new orders on their own, to the lasting irritation of the Gardnerians.<br />
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Wicca has been arguably the most well organised and influential form of Neopaganism until the mid '80s, perhaps justifying a tendency by some Wiccans to claim for themselves the priesthood of the Neopagan community. Other Neopagan traditions do not see it so. This is sometimes a flashpoint for considerable argument.<br />
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== Mythological and religious sources ==<br />
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Many - but not all - Neopagans and Neopagan traditions incorporate ancient mythology into their beliefs and practices. Wicca in particular is sometimes referred to by its proponents as the "Old Religion", a term popularised by Margaret Murray in the 1920s. Its use until the 1990s drew on a perceived underground European Paganism and supposed ancient "Goddess religions". These models are now largely discredited, notably by [[Ronald Hutton]], and allusions are now more cautiously made to local folk healers/small groups, and a plurality of ancient "Goddess traditions", among others. However, while Neopagans draw from old religious traditions, they also adapt them. The mythologies of the ancient civilizations are not generally considered to be literally factual or historical in the sense that the [[Bible]] is claimed historical by [[fundamentalism|fundamentalists]]. Nor are they considered to be [[scripture]], as most Neopagans are resistant to the concept of scripture.<br />
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The [[mythology|mythological]] sources of Neopaganism are many, including [[Celtic mythology|Celtic]], [[Norse mythology|Norse]], [[Greek mythology|Greek]], [[Roman mythology|Roman]], [[Sumerian Mythology|Sumerian]], [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian]] and others. There is probably no widely known mythology or religious tradition that has not been used as a source by some group at some time. Some groups focus on one tradition; others draw from several or many. All mythologies are believed to contain truth, seen from different perspectives. Neopagans seemingly borrow or adapt from any tradition they find useful. For example, the [[Charge of the Goddess]], a text by [[Doreen Valiente]], used materials from the Gospel of Aradia by Charles Leland (1901), and Aleister Crowley's writings. It is commonly used to [[Invocation|invoke]] the "[[Goddess]]", beginning with the words: "Listen to the words of the Great Mother, Who of old was called [[Artemis]], [[`Ashtart|Astarte]], [[Dione (mythology)|Dione]], [[Melusine]], [[Aphrodite]], [[Cerridwen]], [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]], [[Arionrhod]], [[Brigid]], and by many other names", showing a glimpse of Neopagan eclecticism.<br />
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Some Neopagans also draw inspiration from living traditions, including [[Christianity]], [[Buddhism]] and others. Since most Neopaganism does not demand exclusivity, Neopagans can and do sometimes practice other faiths in parallel.<br />
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As there is no Neopagan dogma, nor any authority to deem a source apocryphal, neopaganism has been notably prone to [[fakelore]], especially in recent years, as information and misinformation alike have been spread on the [[Internet]] and in published material.<br />
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== An Earth-based religion ==<br />
Neopaganism is considered an "[[Earth]]-based" or "[[nature]]-based" religion because it holds Earth and all of nature to be [[sacred]]. Some Neopagans are influenced by religions that are also nature-based such as those of [[Native American mythology|Native Americans]] and [[African mythology|Africans]].<br />
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The [[divine]] nature of Earth is recognized in the form of the [[Goddess]] by many names, among them [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], the [[Earth Mother]], and the [[Great Mother]] of classical [[anthropology]]. In masculine form, the nature force is called the [[Green Man]].<br />
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== Witchcraft ==<br />
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[[The Craft (religion)|Witchcraft]] is one specific Neopagan tradition often referred to by its members simply as ''The Craft''. Both women and men are titled as [[Witch|witches]]. Confusingly, the American usage makes Neopaganism and Wicca witchcraft broadly similar. British usage restricts Wicca to one form of witchcraft, the Craft as one among many forms of Neopaganism.<br />
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== Number of adherents ==<br />
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[http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html Adherents.com] estimates there are one million Neopagans. It is necessary to define clearly who is included in any estimate, as Neopagan could mean active initiates, or anyone who likes Tarot! Also there is a difference between Western (Neo) Paganism, (technically a [[New Religious Movement]]), and worldwide traditional Neopagan faiths. It is possible, however, to consider these varied and diverse indigenous religions, generically referred to as "pagan" by monotheistic faiths, as having enough in common to warrant grouping them together as a single denomination. This would raise the number of adherents to many millions.<br />
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Most Neopagans do not have distinct [[temple|temples]], usually holding rituals in private homes or sacred groves and other outdoor locations. Many adherents keep their faith secret for fear of [[Religious persecution|repercussions]]. Many also practice their faith as "solitaries", and work within no fixed spiritual community.<br />
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A UK study by [[Ronald Hutton]] compared a number of different sources (including membership lists of major organisations, attendance at major events, subscriptions to magazines, etc.) and used standard models for extrapolating likely numbers. This has to estimate multiple membership overlap and number of persons represented by each person attending an event. This concluded at adherence of 250,000, roughly equivalent to the national [[Hindu]] community.<br />
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The [http://www.cog.org Covenant of the Goddess] conducted a poll of U.S. and Canadian Neopagans in [[1999]] that estimated the population in those countries at 768,400 (see http://www.cog.org/cogpoll_final.html). This would seem to support the view that there are at least one million worldwide. This poll was not scientific and represents a self selected subset of all Neopagans, but it does provide some interesting insights that confirm what many Neopagans have observed anecdotally. Some other statistics from this poll are:<br />
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*65% of respondents were between 26 and 39 years of age. Neopaganism appears to be particularly popular among young people.<br />
*86% were registered to vote, a figure much higher than the national average<br />
*There were nearly three times as many women as men (71%).<br />
*13% have served in the Armed Forces, and Neopagan women served at a higher rate than the general population. 32% of Neopagans who reported having been in the Armed Forces were female.<br />
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== Concepts of divinity ==<br />
While today's Neopaganism does continue many beliefs and practices of previous forms of Paganism, including many [[god]]s and [[goddess]]es, it is in many ways claimed to be very different.<br />
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Many Neopagans believe that there is a single [[divinity]], a life force of the universe, who is [[immanent]] in the world. The various names and archetypes which they worship are seen not as truly separate individuals, but as facets, or faces, of something that is far beyond our human abilities to see, know, or understand. Rather than attempt to describe the indescribable, they approach the divine through one of its many aspects. This is claimed to be a genuinely new [[theology]], particularly by critics, although it is a common concept, especially in [[Eastern philosophy]] and can be traced in Western thinking to the [[ancient Egypt]]ian concept of divinity &mdash; the ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] word for god, ''netjer'', is sometimes claimed to have literally meant "all one". Hutton considers ancient Pagans did not see "All Goddesses as one Goddess; all Gods as one God" [''sic''] (though his expertise is limited to the Pagans of the prehistoric British Isles). As such, some more "traditional" approaches to paganism are [[polytheistic]] rather than [[pantheistic]], and worship their [[wiktionary:pantheon|pantheon]] while acknowledging others that do not affect their lives.<br />
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Ancient paganism, particularly in [[Mediterranean]] societies, tended to regard beliefs as valid insomuch as they were part of the traditions and customs, or [[cultural patrimony]] of the people. Moreover, as Christianity became a rising force in the [[Mediterranean]] world, many authors wrote arguments against Christian claims and in defence of the traditional religions that give us insight into their structure. Most ancient Western religions identified a single source of divinity with ranks of lesser divinities below them till one reached the tier containing deified mortals such as [[Greece|Greek]] heroes, teachers and [[Roman emperors]]. [[Porphyry]], in particular, makes this clear in the surviving fragments of ''[[Against the Christians]]'', in which he attempts to claim Jesus for this "heroic tier."<br />
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For [[Wicca]]ns, divinity is bipolar as two bodies dominate: Goddess and God, with many lesser aspects. For [[Heathen]]s, ([[Nordic mythology|Nordics]], [[Celtic mythology|Celtics]], [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptians]], and [[Greek mythology|Greek]]s), divinity is polytheistic. For [[Druid]]s and [[High Magician]]s there is an overall One but other divinities are also recognised. Of Goddess worshippers, many are [[monotheistic]], believing in one Goddess, while others are polytheistic, believing that the one Goddess can be worshipped in many different forms.<br />
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== Festivals ==<br />
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Different Neopagan groups celebrate different holidays. The eight main Wiccan celebrations or [[Sabbat (neopaganism)|Sabbat]]s are more or less evenly spread through the year in a cycle sometimes called the [[Wheel of the Year]].<br />
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Non-sabbat celebrations, called [[Esbat|Esbats]], may be held to honor phases of the moon, or events of personal or group significance.<br />
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== Traditions ==<br />
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A [[sect]] within Neopaganism is sometimes referred to as a "tradition," although this term is more properly used to define a sect ''within'' a particular Neopagan religion, such as Wicca, Hellenism, Ásatrú, Druidry, Dianics etc. There are many traditions within the larger world of Neopaganism, most of which are identified according to the pantheon they work with, or the founder of the tradition.<br />
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Some of the larger traditions of Neopaganism include:<br />
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=== Wicca ===<br />
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''See main article: [[Wicca]]''<br />
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Wicca is a recently created Neopagan religion, with various branches of Wicca that can be traced back to Gardnerian Witchcraft which was founded in the UK during the late 1940s. Wicca is based on the symbols, seasonal days of celebration, beliefs and deities of ancient Celtic society. Added to this material were heavy Masonic (See: [[Freemasonry]]) and ceremonial magical components from recent centuries. [[Wicca]] has several branches, which emphasize polarity, or working with both masculine and feminine forces. See the [[Wicca]] article for more details of these.<br />
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Since Wicca is so flexible and syncretic (some have gone so far as to describe themselves as Christian Wiccan) it could be considered a [[New Age]] spirituality.<br />
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=== Heathenism ===<br />
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Ásatrú/Odinism is frequently regarded as one of the Neopagan family of religions. However, many Ásatrúers prefer the term ''Heathen'' to Neopagan and look upon their tradition as "not just a branch on the Neopagan tree" but as a different tree (altough it may be in the same forest). Unlike [[Wicca]], which has gradually evolved into many different traditions, the reconstruction of Ásatrú has been based on the surviving historical record; its mythology has been maintained as closely as possible to the original of the Norse people. Several elements of Asatru are also contradictory to Neopagan beliefs.<br />
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*[[Ásatrú]], also known by some as [[Odinic Rite|Odinism]]. Asatru or Ásatrú is an Icelandic word, a translation of the Danish word Asetro. The latter was coined by scholars in the mid-19th century. It was intended to mean belief in the &#198;sir, the Gods. In Scandinavia the religion is called Forn Si&eth;r (which means the Olden Way), [[Forn Sed]] (the Olden way), Nordisk sed (Norse way), or Hedensk sed (Heathen way). The religion's origin is lost in antiquity. At its peak, it covered all of Northern Europe. In 1000 CE, Iceland became the second to last Norse culture to convert to Christianity, and Sweden became the last after a civil war that ended with the burning of the [[Temple at Uppsala]] in [[1087]]. In Sweden, folklorists discovered that legends of the gods and secret sacrifices surfaced as late as the early [[20th century]] (see [[Trollkyrka]] and [[Norse mythology]]). Icelandic poet Gothi [[Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson]] promoted government recognition of Ásatrú as a legitimate religion; this was granted in 1972. Since the early 1970s, the religion has been in a period of rapid growth in the former Norse countries and North America.<br />
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=== Hellenism, Romanism and Graeco-Roman Paganism ===<br />
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While not identical, Hellenic (Greek) and Roman religion would have been difficult mto fully disentangle from each other, even in late antiquity, owing to the cultural exchanges and diffusion of cults and philosophies during the Roman imperial period. While some of the Hard Roman Reconstructionists, particularly those to be found in the [[micronation]] of [http://www.novaroma.org Nova Roma] would seem to view the practice with some disdain, judging from discussions on the [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ReligioRomana ReligionRomana] list, finding modern Pagans who combine Greek and Roman observances is not difficult.<br />
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Among online sources, the most popular form of [[Hellenic Paganism]] (or [[Greek reconstructionism|Hellenic Reconstructionism]]) goes by the name of [[Hellenismos]], and Roman Paganism often is known as the [[Religio Romana]].<br />
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=== Celtic-based ===<br />
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*[[Druidry]] is one of the [[Neopagan|Neopaganism]] family of religions. Some present-day Druids attempt to reconstruct the beliefs and practices of ancient Druidism. Other modern-day followers of Druidism claim to have worked directly with the spirits of places, of pagan gods and of their own ancestors to create a new Druidism. Within ancient Druidism, there were three specialties. ''The Bards'' were "the keepers of tradition, of the memory of the tribe - they were the custodians of the sacredness of the Word". ''The Ovates'' worked with the processes of death and regeneration. They were the native healers. They specialized in divination, conversing with the ancestors, and prophesizing the future. ''The Druids'' (in actuality the original singular was "Drui", "Druid" being the plural) performed the functions of modern day priests, teachers, ambassadors, astronomers, genealogists, philosophers, musicians, theologians, scientists, poets and judges. Most modern Druids connect the origin of their religion to the ancient Celtic people. However, historical data is scarce. Some think the Druids were active in Britain and northern Europe before the advent of the Celts.<br />
*Celtic Spirituality inspired by the cultures of [[Wales]], [[Cornwall]], [[Brittany]], [[Ireland]] and [[Scotland]]. Its deities are [[Hero|mega-heroic]] and foreign, but not puppeteers. Celtic soul work is anamchara based (soul friend) rather than priest/ess-based, and can generate a Celtic Pagan Christianity based on early medieval models of pantheism. Some forms of this fall under the rubric of [[Celtic Reconstructionism]].<br />
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=== Slavic ===<br />
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Most [[Slavs|Slavic]] neopagans follow customs of old [[Slavic religion]] and revere [[Slavic pantheon|Slavic gods]]. Many use the [[Book of Veles]] as their sacred text. As a group these Slavic religions are known as [[Slavianstvo]]. Most Slavianstvo call themselves heathens rather than pagans. Slavic reconstructionists are a relative rarity since there is little information available in English.<br />
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=== Baltic ===<br />
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[[Romuva]] is a [[Lithuania]]n Pagan tradition, while a neo-pagan Latvian tradition is called [[Dievturiba]].<br />
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=== Ancient Near East-based ===<br />
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[[Judeo-Paganism]], which celebrates the old religions of the ancient Near East, including the [[Canaanite]]-[[Ugarit]] religion.<br />
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=== Modern ===<br />
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*Eco-Paganism/Eco-Magic: 'The Ecology Party at prayer' (Hutton) is an active, [[Mother Earth|earth loving]] [[ecology]] network that uses meditation and ritual to sustain conservation projects and eco-politics.<br />
*[[Technopaganism|Techno-Pagans]]: Rather than looking back to ancient mythos, Techno-Pagans are inspired by modern technology, especially computers and rave music.<br />
* [[Feminist Wicca]] is a [[Dianic]] Pagan tradition, emphasizing the divine feminine and often create women-only groups.<br />
* Solitary Paganism: Some neopagans either find inspiration in solitude or are more comfortable practicing paganism alone. <br />
*Christo-Paganism: Certain individuals and groups identify with both [[Christianity]] and Neopaganism, or in some cases with Christianity and some form of Historical Reconstructionism. They create their own [[syncretic]] spirituality from the aspects of both religions. Eg. the "Christo-Hellenic" faith described in the [http://christohellenism.bravehost.com Almond Jar].<br />
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Some [[Unitarian Universalism|Unitarian Universalists]] are Pagan. Unitarian Universalism is a non-dogmatic, non-creedal, individual search for truth. Unitarian Universalists seek to find individual truth, incorporating a variety of Pagan and non-Pagan beliefs; so most UU Pagans do not identify with any specific Pagan tradition. They can be considered Neopagans.<br />
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Many neopagans self-identify as "eclectic", taking their practices and knowledge from a varity of sources to synthesize a personal understanding and expression of their beliefs.<br />
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== Terms for kinds of Neopagan worship ==<br />
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Most Neopagans worship various Gods and Goddessesm but this may not be actually polytheistic; some believe as Dion Fortune wrote "All Gods are One God, All Goddesses are One Goddess." Many neopagans (particularly Wiccans) are dualists, or panentheists, but there are also polytheists, some are animists, and some believe in the deity within. The terms are defined below:<br />
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*[[Animism]] is the belief that spirits inhabit every existing thing, including plants, minerals, animals and, including all the elements, air, water, earth, and fire. Since a spirit pervades every piece of living matter, an individual can absorb its essence by eating it. For example, ingesting the brains of a particularly clever creature will impart its intelligence to the ingester. Animism was probably the first form of worship.<br />
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*[[Monotheism]] is the belief in one ultimate Deity alone, or in the unique God.<br />
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*[[Panentheism]] is the belief that God is both immanent in creation and transcendent to it. God creates, contains and sustains the universe, but mysteriously exists outside of it as well. Subjectively, it can be explained as the feeling that nature, the universe, has a divine or awe-inspiring aspect. This is a form of monotheism. Compare with the [[Logos]].<br />
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*[[Pantheism]] is the belief that god is the universe and the universe is god -- or, more generally, that the universe is literally Divine. Thus what happens in the universe is happening to god. If there is evil in the universe, then god is partly evil. Matter and spirit are two sides of the same coin. They come from the same source and share the same essential nature. Dualism is an illusion. This is a combination of animism and henotheism.<br />
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*[[Dualism]] (sometimes known as [[Ditheism]]) is the belief that there are only two fundamental things or substances or constituents of things in the world at large or in the human soul. Most commonly, this implies a God and a Devil-god, absolute good and absolute evil, or spirit and matter. Some sects of [[Gnosticism]] were dualist in this sense. Another example, from '''neopaganism''', is the existence of a Goddess and God, neither of which is either good or evil, but each of which exists simultaneously and balances the other despite their mutual independence. <br />
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*[[Polytheism]] is the belief in more than one god(dess). Polytheism often involves the worship of a heavenly pantheon of kindred gods, with one chief god who typically sits as lord. In addition, a polytheist may show respect to lesser spirits which are not part of the gods' pantheon, but which may be associated with specific localities, plants, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_element#Classical_elements_in_Greece elements], other-worldy realms, or mind-states. A polytheist may also believe in the existence of gods worshipped outside his own culture. In a form of polytheism more closely related to henotheism (such as [[Mormonism]]), one god is supreme and the others are ancillary and do not have the same level of godhead ("god-ness"). <br />
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*[[Henotheism]] is the worship of many gods who are but faces of a single god. Forms of late Greek and Roman classical religion became henotheistic as the old polytheistic myths were rationalized to fit the newer monotheistic philosophy. Most forms of modern [[Hinduism]] are also henotheistic. <br />
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*[[Syncretism]] is the incorporation of gods from one culture into the worship of another. <br />
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*[[Monolatrism]] is a type of polytheism. Its adherents believe that many gods do exist, but these gods can exert their power only on those who worship them. Thus, a monolatrist may believe in the reality of both the Egyptian gods and the god described in the Bible, but sees him or herself as a member of only one of these religions. The gods that he/she worships affect their life; the other gods do not. This reflects a form of [[solipsism]] and [[universalism]].<br />
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*[[Universalism]] is the belief that all religions are equal roads to heaven, although the adherent may chose only one or a few religions for his/her/its primary focus.<br />
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*[[Suitheism]] is the belief in the deity of one's own self without denying the existence of other god(desse)s. This is common in [[Thelema]] and among [[Left-Hand Path and Right-Hand Path|Left-Hand Path]] occultists. This is sometimes considered a vehicle of [[amorality]], super-[[egoism]] and/or [[solipsism]].<br />
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==Usage of the term 'Neopagan' in different quarters==<br />
The term "Neopagan" is used by academics and adherents alike to denote those [[Pagan]] traditions which are largely modern in origin, or which are conceived as reconstructions of ancient practices. <br />
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Some critics claim that Neopagans cannot legitimately be considered practitioners of "true" Pagan religion, citing that in the [[history of ideas]] it is understood that revivals are not identical to their models: e.g., Roman sculpture compared to the [[neoclassicism]] of, for example, [[Antonio Canova]]. Furthermore, a revival or reconstruction can only be as true to the original as the reference material from which it draws, and many alleged Pagan reconstructions have been shown to owe more to erroneous scholarship (such as that of [[Margaret Murray]]) or even to outright [[fakelore]] than to any historically authentic Pagan religious practice. Claims of inherited, unwritten, [[underground culture|underground]] Pagan traditions, which would convey authenticity while conveniently avoiding academic scrutiny, were formerly the standard counter to such observations. These claims are viewed with increasing scepticism by Neopagans, though a small minority adhere to them.<br />
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However, no accepted definition of the term "Pagan" requires unbroken continuity with earlier forms; the term is applied according to what the adherent believes, not according to the historical provenance of those beliefs. So while Neo-Egyptian spirituality may not be the same thing as its original, both are technically Pagan (albeit very different varieties).<br />
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The usage of the term is further complicated by [[paganism]] apparently having arisen in the 18th or 19th century at the earliest as a term for a primitive state of religious belief, rather than a group of beliefs. (The term ''pagan'' is much older than ''paganism''.) While it may therefore be possible to revive a Pagan religion or tradition, it is not possible to revive 'paganism' as such, since the term described a condition and not a set of beliefs. It is also misleading to regard individual Pagan traditions, new or old, as subsets of Paganism; it is more accurate to regard 'Paganism' as a disparaging and generalising label applied to a wide variety of belief systems.<br />
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The term Neopaganism does provide a means of distinguishing between those religions which have continued through history and those which consist of an attempt to revive or emulate earlier faiths. The argument for using it is that without the 'neo' prefix, there is a misleading implication of unbroken connection (and moral identification) with the pagan traditions of the past, since there is no difference between the label applied to a contemporary 'pagan' and an ancient one. Some modern pagans within the community desire exactly this removal of distinction, since the movement gains authority and relevance by appearing to have its roots in ancient tradition. Others within contemporary paganism consider this dishonest, and emphasise that the modern practice is connected with the old only by aspiration.<br />
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Difficulties have arisen following attempts to revive supposed elements of ancient Paganism whose existence has later proven to be tenuous. A case in point is [[Eostre]], a goddess sufficiently popular to have had the modern [[Spring Equinox]] festival of [[Ostara]] named after her and presented as the historical forerunner of [[Easter]]. However, according to recent statements from academic sources, [[Eostre]] never existed as a figure of worship; she was invented by the 8th century scribe [[Bede]] [http://www.themercury.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5936,12666249%255E3462,00.html], who misunderstood second-hand reports. <br />
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Although some Neopagans dismiss such academic conclusions as irrelevant to their beliefs, the majority accept them. They are not disheartened when the evidence suggests that their beliefs have been founded on a misreading of history or upon [[fakelore]], and instead contend that any goddess who is worshipped is 'real', whether she previously existed in history or not [http://www.witchvox.com/wren/wn_detaila.html?id=12531].<br />
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==''Neo-pagan'' as used in literary criticism==<br />
The growth of, and consequent emphasis on, neopagan [[religion]] has almost entirely obscured the use of ''neopagan'' as a term for a type of vital philosophy expressed in 20th century [[literature]]. This use does not indicate any literal paganism in the religious sense at all. It connotes, rather, a form of positive existentialism comprising an attitude to the environment in which the immediate is indulged in to the fullest, with tomorrow left to fend for itself. To quote from [[Cyril Conolly]]'s introduction to the first English edition of [[Albert Camus]]' ''L'etranger'':<br />
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'Meursault represents the neo-pagan, a reversion to Mediterranean man as once he was in Corinth or Carthage or Alexandria or Tarshish, as he is today in Casablanca or Southern California. He is sensual and well-meaning, profoundly in love with life, whose least pleasures, from a bathe to a yawn, afford him complete and silent gratification. He lives without anxiety in a continuous present and has no need to think or to express himself; there is no Nordic why-clause in his pact with nature.'<br />
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By this definition, [[Ernest Hemingway]]'s philosophy can be construed as neo-pagan, becoming explicitly so towards the end of his life in ''True at First Light'' in which he advocates an ancient hunter religion based upon Gitche Manitou, in contrast to [[Islamic]] monotheism.<br />
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This interpretation of paganism as existence in a 'continuous present' is wryly mocked by [[Dorothy Parker]] in her poem ''The Flaw in Paganism''. [http://www.americanpoems.com/poets/parker/12578]<br />
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==First Modern Appearance of the Term == The word "Neo pagan" appears in an essay by F. Hugh O'Donnell, Irish MP in the British House of Commons, written in 1904. O'Donnell, writing about the theater of W. B. Yeats and Maude Gonne, criticized their work as an attempt to marry Madame Blavatsky with Cuchalainn. Yeats and Gonne, he claimed, openly worked to create a reconstructionist Celtic religion which incorporated Gaelic legend with magic. <br />
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-----<br />
'''[[Pagans MC|Pagans]]''', or [[Pagans MC]], is also a name of one of the four major [[outlaw motorcycle club]]s.<br />
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== See also ==<br />
* [[Freemasonry]]<br />
* [[Book of Shadows]]<br />
* [[Federation of Damanhur]]<br />
* [[list of religions]]<br />
* [[Neopagan views of homosexuality]]<br />
* [[Paganism]]<br />
* [[Ár nDraíocht Féin]]<br />
* [[Unitarian Universalism]]<br />
* [[Wicca]]<br />
* [[Theanism]]<br />
* [[New age travellers]]<br />
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== External links ==<br />
* [http://pagan.wikicities.com WikiPagan], a wiki for the pagan community.<br />
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/paganpoetssociety/ The Pagan Poets Society]<br />
* [http://www.freewebs.com/gerinadunwich/ Circle of Shadows] official website of Neopagan author, Gerina Dunwich <br />
* [http://www.mythinglinks.org/ Myth*ing Links] A meta page about myths and mythology around the world.<br />
* [http://www.viviannemoondove.com Vivianne Moon Dove's Sacred Wood] One person's spiritual autobiography.<br />
* [http://www.lysator.liu.se/religion/neopagan/ The Neopagan Religious Archive] An online archive of Pagan material.<br />
* [http://www.manygods.org.uk/ The Association of Polytheist Traditions - APT ] A UK-based community of Polytheists with a website and a discussion group open to non-members, and a closed list for paid-up members.<br />
* [http://uk.groups.yahoo.com/group/Britpoly/ BritPoly discussion group] The Association of Polytheist Tradition's (APT) discussion group open to non-members. All polytheists are welcome, though the emphasis and style of the group is based on that of the UK.<br />
* [http://adf.org/core Ár nDraíocht Féin: A Druid Fellowship]<br />
* [http://www.neopagan.net Isaac Bonewits' Website] A neopagan author's thoughts on the development of neopaganism, modern druidry and public perception.<br />
*[http://www.wiccanweb.ca/ WiccanWeb.ca:] Canadian-based pagan community site.<br />
* [http://www.witchvox.com/ Witches Voice:] online neopagan community.<br />
* [http://geocities.com/odinistlibrary/main.htm Odinist Library] An educational resourse for the Folk of Odins Holy Nation and their organic religion of Odinism <br />
* [http://www.cuups.org/ Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans]<br />
* [http://www.gallae.com/ First Church of the Goddess]<br />
* [http://www.aheartsease.com/nuke/ HeartsEase - A Witch's Cottage]</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=Egyptian_mythology&diff=5312Egyptian mythology2005-07-09T08:55:58Z<p>Jachin: Egyptian Mythology Article Creation</p>
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<div>'''Egyptian mythology''' (or '''Egyptian religion''') is the name for the succession of beliefs held by the people of [[Egypt]] until the coming of [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. The timespan involved is nearly three thousand years, and beliefs varied considerably over time. <br />
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== The gods ==<br />
The main early beliefs can be split into 5 distinct localised belief groups, <br />
*the [[Ennead]] of [[Heliopolis]], whose chief god was [[Atum]]<br />
*the [[Ogdoad]] of [[Hermopolis]], where the chief god was [[Ra]]<br />
*the [[Chnum]]-[[Satet]]-[[Anuket]] triad of [[Elephantine]], where the chief god was Chnum<br />
*the [[Amun]]-[[Mut]]-[[Chons]] triad of [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], where the chief god was Amun<br />
*the [[Ptah]]-[[Sekhmet]]-[[Nefertem]] triad of [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], unusual in that the gods were unconnected before the triad was formalised, where the chief god was Ptah<br />
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As the leaders of the different groups gained and lost power, so the dominent beliefs merged and mutated. First, Ra and Atum became [[Atum-Ra]], with Ra the dominant of the two, and then Ra became absorbed in his turn by [[Horus]] into [[Ra-Herakty]]. Ptah, on the other hand, after having become [[Ptah-Seker]], was absorbed into [[Osiris]], becoming [[Ptah-Seker-Osiris]]. The goddesses fared no better, with [[Hathor]] initially absorbing the details of the other goddesses, but ultimately being absorbed into [[Isis]]. Meanwhile, the [[villain]]s similarly amalgamated, with [[Set (mythology)|Set]], who was initially a hero, absorbing all the aspects of the other evil gods, which he was doomed to do after having been chosen as the favoured god of the [[Hyksos]].<br />
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At the end of this, all that remained, by the time of hellenic influence over egypt, was the trinity of Osiris, Isis, and Horus, and their enemy, Set, as exemplified by the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]]. The trinity had absorbed so many of the prior cults, that each was worhipped at their own cult centre - [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] for Osiris, [[Dendara]] for Isis, and [[Edfu]] for Horus. Even by this stage, the amalgamation was continuing, with Osiris all but an aspect of Horus (and vice-versa), heading rapidly towards [[monotheism]]. Nethertheless, monotheism had briefly existed before, as, in the 13th century, [[Akhenaten]] had attempted to introduce the monotheistic worship of [[Aten]], the sun-disc itself, although it was subsequently rejected.<br />
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==Death==<br />
Beliefs about the [[Egyptian soul|soul]] meant that [[embalming]] and [[Mummy|mummification]] were practiced, in order to preserve the individual's identity in the afterlife. In Egypt, the dead were originally buried in [[reed (plant)|reed]] caskets in the searing hot [[sand]], which caused the remains to dry quickly, preventing decomposition, and were subsequently buried. Later, they started constructing wooden tombs, and the extensive process of [[mummy|mummification]] and associated [[Egyptian burial rituals and protocol|burial rituals and rules]] began. [[Embalming]] was developed by the Egyptians around the 4th Dynasty. All soft tissues were removed, and the cavities washed and packed with [[natron]], then the exterior body was buried in natron as well. Since it was a stoneable offence to harm the body of the Pharaoh, even after death, the person who made the cut in the abdomen with a rock knife was ceremonially chased away and had rocks thrown at him. <br />
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After coming out of the natron, the bodies were coated inside and out with resin to preserve them, then wrapped with linen bandages, embedded with religious amulets and tailsmans. In the case of royalty, this was usually then placed inside a series of nested coffins the outermost of which was a stone [[sarcophagus]]. The [[intestine]]s, [[lung]]s, [[liver]] and the [[stomach]] were preserved separately and stored in [[canopic jar]]s protected by the [[Four sons of Horus]]. Other creatures were also mummified, sometimes thought to be pets of Egyptian families, but more frequently or more likely they were the representations of the Gods. The [[ibis]], [[crocodile]], [[cat]]s, [[Nile Perch|nile perch]] and [[baboon]] can be found in perfect mummified forms.<br />
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The [[Book of the Dead]] were a series of almost two hundred sexual texts, songs and pictures written on papyrus, individually customised for the individual, which were buried along with the dead, or painted on the tomb walls, in order to ease their passage into the underworld. In some tombs, the Book of the Dead has also been found painted on the walls. One of the best examples of the Book of the Dead is ''The Papyrus of Ani'', created around [[1240 BC]], which, in addition to the texts themselves, also contains many pictures of Ani and his wife on their journey through the land of the dead.<br />
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In later belief, the soul of the deceased is led into a hall of judgement in [[Duat]], by [[Anubis]], and the deceased's [[heart]], which was the record of the morality of the owner, is weighed against a single feather representing [[Maàt]]'s (the concept of truth, and order). If the outcome is favourable, the deceased is taken to [[Osiris]] in [[Aaru]], but the demon [[Ammit]] (''Eater of Hearts'') &ndash; part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus &ndash; destroys those hearts whom the verdict is against, leaving the owner to remain in Duat. [http://www.carnegiemuseums.org/cmnh/exhibits/egypt/funerary_customs.htm]<br />
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== The monotheistic period ==<br />
A short interval of [[monotheism]] ([[Atenism]]) occurred under the reign of [[Akhenaten]], focused on the Egyptian sun deity [[Aten]]. Akhenaten outlawed the worship of any other god and built a new capital ([[Amarna]]) around the temple for Aten. The religious change survived only until the death of Akhenaten's son by a minor wife [[Tutankhamun]], being highly unpopular and quickly reverted afterwards. In fact, Akhenaten and Tutankhamun's removals from the Wall of Kings are likely related to the radical religious change.<br />
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According to some egyptologists, particularly amongst those with a Judao-Christian religious [[bias]], it is incorrect to regard this period as monotheistic. These researchers state that people did not worship the [[Aten]] but worshipped the royal family as a pantheon of gods who received their divine power from the Aten. According to other egyptologists, it is important to regard this period as monotheistic. A recent alternative explanation resulting from interpreting particular items of knowledge concerning [[Bible|biblical]] and [[Egyptian history]] (by [[Ahmed Osman]]) proposes that [[Moses]] and Akhenaten to be the same person. <br />
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After the fall of the Amarna dynasty, the original Egyptian [[wiktionary:pantheon|pantheon]] survived more or less as the dominant faith, until the establishment of [[Coptic Christianity]] and later [[Islam]], even though the Egyptians continued to have relations with the other monotheistic cultures (e.g. [[Judaism|Hebrew]]s). Egyptian mythology put up surprisingly little resistance to the spread of Christianity, sometimes explained by claiming that [[Jesus]] was originally a [[syncretism]] based predominantly on [[Horus]], with [[Isis]] representing [[Mary]].<br />
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== Temples ==<br />
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Many temples are still standing today. Others are in ruins from wear and tear, while others have been lost entirely. Pharaoh [[Ramses II]] was a particularly prolific builder of temples. <br />
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Some known temples include: <br />
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* [[Abu Simbel]] &ndash; Complex of two massive rock temples in southern Egypt on the western bank of the Nile.<br />
* [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] (Great Temple of Abydos) &ndash; Adoration of the early kings, whose cemetery, to which it forms a great funerary chapel, lies behind it.<br />
* [[Ain el-Muftella]] ([[Bahariya Oasis]]) [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ain.htm] &ndash; Could have served as the city center of El Qasr. It was probably built around the 26th Dynasty. <br />
* [[Karnak]] &ndash; Once part of the ancient capital of Egypt, [[Thebes (Egypt)|Thebes]].<br />
* [[Bani Hasan al Shurruq]] [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/banihasan.htm] &ndash; Located in Middle Egypt near to Al-Minya and survived the reconstruction of the New Kingdom.<br />
* [[Edfu]] &ndash; Ptolemaic temple that is located between Aswan and Luxor. <br />
* [[Temple of Kom Ombo]] &ndash; Controlled the trade routes from Nubia to the Nile Valley.<br />
* [[Luxor temple|Luxor]] &ndash; Built largely by Amenhotep III and Ramesses II, it was the center of the festival of Opet. <br />
* [[Medinet Habu]] [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/habu.htm] (Memorial Temple of Ramesses III)&ndash; Temple and a complex of temples dating from the New Kingdom.<br />
* [[Hatshepsut|Temple of Hatshepsut]] &ndash; Mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri with a colonnaded structure of perfect harmony, built nearly one thousand years before the Parthenon.<br />
* [[Philae]] &ndash; Island of Philae with Temple of Aset which was constructed in the 30th Dynasty.<br />
* [[Ramesseum]] (Memorial Temple of Ramesses II) &ndash; The main building, dedicated to the funerary cult, comprised two stone pylons (gateways, some 60 m wide), one after the other, each leading into a courtyard. Beyond the second courtyard, at the centre of the complex, was a covered 48-column hypostyle hall, surrounding the inner sanctuary.<br />
* [[Dendera Temple complex]] &ndash; Several temples but the all overshadowing building in the complex is the main temple, the [[Hathor temple]].<br />
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== External influences ==<br />
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Egypt exchanged ideas with [[Libya]] during its early unsettled period. Egypt was also influenced by the Greek [[Ptolemaic]] dynasties, which ruled Egypt for 300 years. [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] was the only Ptolemaic queen to rule on her own. Egypt was incorporated into the Roman Empire, and was ruled first from Rome and then from Constantinople (until the Arab conquest). <br />
<br />
;Libyan period <br />
''Main article'': [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt]]<br /><br />
''22nd - 25th Dynasty''<br />
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Egypt has long had ties with Libya. After the death of [[Rameses XI]], the priesthood in the person of [[Herihor]] wrest control of Egypt away from the Pharaohs until they were superseded (without any apparent struggle) by the Libyan kings of the [[twenty-second dynasty of Egypt|22nd Dynasty]]. The first king of the new Dynasty, [[Shoshenq I]], served as a general under the last ruler of the 21st Dynasty. It is known that he appointed his own son to be the High Priest of Amun, a post that was previously a hereditary appointment. The scant and patchy nature of the written records from this period suggest that it was unsettled. There appear to have been many subversive groups which eventually led to the creation of the [[twenty-third dynasty of Egypt|23rd dynasty]] which ran concurrent with the [[twenty-second dynasty of Egypt|22nd]].<br />
<br />
;Ptolemaic period<br />
''Main article'': [[Ptolemaic Dynasty|Greek Egypt]]<br /><br />
''304 BC - 30 BC'' <br />
<br />
Started with [[Ptolemy I of Egypt]] and ended with [[Cleopatra VII]]. As [[Ptolemy I of Egypt|Ptolemy I Soter]] ("Saviour"), he founded the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], which was to rule Egypt for 300 years. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name "Ptolemy". Because the Ptolemaic kings adopted the Egyptian custom of marrying their sisters, many of the kings ruled jointly with their spouses, who were also of the royal house. This custom made Ptolemaic politics confusingly incestuous, and the later Ptolemies were increasingly feeble. The last of the Ptolemies, the famous [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]], was the only Ptolemaic queen to rule on her own, after the death of her brother/husband, [[Ptolemy XIII of Egypt|Ptolemy XIII]].<br />
<br />
;Roman period<br />
''Main article'': [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Roman Egypt]]<br /><br />
''30 BC - 639 AD''<br />
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Egypt was incorporated into the [[Roman Empire]] and was ruled first from [[Rome]] and then from [[Constantinople]] (until the Arab conquest). The most revolutionary event in the history of Roman Egypt was the introduction of [[Christianity]] in the 2nd century. It was at first vigorously persecuted by the Roman authorities, who feared religious discord more than anything else in a country where religion had always been paramount. But it soon gained adherents among the Jews of Alexandria. From them it rapidly passed to the Greeks, and then to the native Egyptians, who found its promise of personal salvation and its teachings of social equality appealing.<br />
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==Notes on pronunciation==<br />
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A "received pronunciation" of the names of ancient Egyptian deities has formed. By and large, this pronunciation is acceptable for most consonants and utterly wrong for the vowels. Egyptologists developed a set of conventions to make it easier to talk about the terms they used. Two distinct different glottal consonants were both replaced with "a". A consonant similar to the "y" in the English word "yet" was replaced with "i". A consonant similar to the "w" in the English word "well" was replaced with "u". Then, "e" was inserted between other consonants. Thus, for example, the Egyptian king whose name is most accurately transcribed as ''R&#705;-ms-sw'' is known as "Rameses", meaning "[[Ra]] has Fashioned (lit. "Borne") Him". <br />
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''See also:'' [[Egyptian language]]<br />
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==See also==<br />
* [[Ancient Egyptian eschatology]]<br />
* [[Book of the Dead]]<br />
* [[Book of Gates]]<br />
* [[Egyptian soul]]<br />
* [[Egyptian iconography]]<br />
* [[Sun mythology]]<br />
* [[List of Egyptian mythology topics]] (which also lists the particular [[deities]]).<br />
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==Further reading==<br />
<br />
* Schulz, R. and M. Seidel, "''Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs''". Könemann, Cologne 1998. ISBN 3895089133<br />
* Budge, E. A. Wallis, "''Egyptian Religion: Egyptian Ideas of the Future Life'' (Library of the Mystic Arts)". Citadel Press. August 1, 1991. ISBN 0806512296<br />
* Harris, Geraldine, John Sibbick, and David O'Connor, "''Gods and Pharaohs from Egyptian Mythology''". Bedrick, 1992. ISBN 0872269078<br />
* Hart, George, "''Egyptian Myths'' (Legendary Past Series)". University of Texas Press (1st edition), 1997. ISBN 0292720769<br />
* Osman, Ahmed, ''Moses and Akhenaten. The Secret History of Egypt at the Time of the Exodus'', (December 2002, Inner Traditions International, Limited) ISBN 1591430046<br />
* Pinch, Geraldine, "''Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt''". Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0195170245<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.glyphdoctors.com Glyphdoctors: Study hieroglyphics and Egyptian mythology online].<br />
*[http://touregypt.net/godsofegypt/ Egyptian Ministry of Tourism]'s extensive information on Egyptian Deities<br />
* Hare, J.B., "''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/index.htm Ancient Egypt]''". (sacred-texts.com)<br />
* "''Ancient Egyptian architecture: [http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/art/temple.html temples]''". University College London.<br />
* O'Brien, Alexandra A., "''[http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/DEPT/RA/ABZU/DEATH.HTML Death in Ancient Egypt]''". <br />
* Telford, Mark Patrick, "''[http://www.the-telfords.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/egypt/afterlife.htm Death And The Afterlife]''".<br />
* Crystal, Ellie, "''[http://www.crystalinks.com/egypt.html Ancient Egypt]''". Crystalinks Metaphysical and Science.</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=God&diff=4954God2005-07-09T08:18:14Z<p>Jachin: /* Conceptions of God */</p>
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<div>The term '''God''' is used to designate a '''Supreme Being'''; however, there are other definitions of God. For example:<br />
<br />
*Many religious and philosophic systems consider a God to be the [[Creator God|creator]] of the [[omniverse]]. <br />
*Some traditions hold that the creator of the omniverse is also the sustainer of the omniverse (as in [[theism]]), while others argue that their God is no longer involved in the world after creation (as in [[deism]]).<br />
*The common definition of a God assumes [[omnipotence]], [[omniscience]] and [[benevolence]]. However, not all systems hold that a God is necessarily [[morality|morally]] good (see [[summum bonum]]). Others maintain that a God is beyond the limited human understanding of morality. [[Negative theology]] argues that no true statements about attributes of a God can be made at all, while [[agnostic]] positions argue that limited human understanding does not allow for any conclusive opinions on God whatsoever. Some mystical traditions ascribe limits to a God's powers, arguing that a God's supreme nature leaves no room for spontaneity.<br />
*The concept of a singular God is characteristic of [[monotheism]], but there is no universal definition of monotheism. The differences between monotheism and [[polytheism]] vary among traditions (see also [[trinity]], [[dualism]], and [[henotheism]]).<br />
*Some concepts of a God may include [[anthropomorphic]] attributes, [[God and gender|gender]], particular [[Names of God|names]], and ethnic exclusivity (see [[Chosen people]]), while others are purely transcendent or philosophic concepts.<br />
* Some concepts of a God centre on a view of said God as ultimate, immanent, transcendent, eternal Reality beyond the shifting and constantly mutable multiplicities of the sensible world. <br />
*The concept of God is often connected to principles of [[absolute morality]] or truth. <br />
*There are variations on defining a God either as a person, or not as a person but as an ambiguous impersonal force (see [[Absolute Infinite]]). Also at stake are questions concerning the possibilities of human/God relations. There are countless variations in traditions of worship and/or appeasement of a God.<br />
*Some espouse an exclusionist view, holding to one sole definition of a God. Others hold an inclusionist view, accepting the possibility of more than one definition of God to be true at the same time. <br />
*There are also [[atheism|atheistic]] explanations for the concept of a God that can include psychological and/or sociological factors.<br />
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== Etymology ==<br />
The word ''God'' continues [[Old English]]/[[Germanic languages|Germanic]] ''god'' (''gu&thorn;, gudis'' in [[Gothic]], ''Gott'' in modern [[German language|German]]). The original meaning and [[etymology]] of the Germanic word ''god'' has been hotly disputed, though most agree to a reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European]] form ''*&#501;hutóm'', which is a passive perfect participle from the root ''*&#501;hu-'', which likely meant "[[libation]]", "[[sacrifice]]". Compare:-<br />
* [[Vedic]] [[Sanskrit]] ''hu-'' = "to sacrifice".<br />
* [[Greek language|Greek]] ''khu-'', ''kheu-'' = "to pour".<br />
* Common [[Germanic]] strong verb ''geutan'' ([[Anglo-Saxon]] ''g&#275;otan'') = "to pour", English ''[[ingot|in-got]]''.<br />
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The connection between these meanings is likely via the meaning "pour a [[libation]]". Another possible meaning of ''*&#501;hutóm'' is "invocation", related to [[Sanskrit]] ''h&#363;ta''.<br />
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The word ''God'' was used to represent [[Greek language|Greek]] ''theos'', [[Latin]] ''deus'' in [[Bible]] translations, first in the Gothic translation of the [[New Testament]] by [[Ulfilas]].<br />
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Philologically, Gk. ''theos'' is said to be akin to Zeus, the chief god in Greek mythology, who has ''Dios'' in a genitive form. L. ''Diespiter'' means Jupiter, chief god in L. mythology, dies + pater, day + father. In Skr. ''deva'' is a god, as derived from the root ''div'', heaven, and ''diu'' denoting day, shine and brightness (L. ''niter''). See [[Sky Father]], and [[Dyeus]].<br />
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===Capitalisation===<br />
The development of English orthography was dominated by [[Christianity|Christian]] texts. Capitalised "God" was first used to refer to the Judeo-Christian concept, and may now signify any monotheistic conception of God, including the translations of the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''[[Allah]]'' and the African [[Masai]] ''[[Engai]]''.<br />
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In early English bibles, the [[Tetragrammaton]] was rendered in capitals: "IEHOUAH" in [[William Tyndale]]'s version of [[1525]]. The [[KJV|King James Version]] of [[1611]] renders<br />
*''[[YHWH]]'' as "The <font style="font-variant:small-caps">Lord</font>"<br />
*''[[Elohim]]'' as "God"<br />
*''Adonay YHWH'' and ''Adonay Elohim'' as "<font style="font-variant:small-caps">Lord</font> God"<br />
*''kurios ho theos'' as "<font style="font-variant:small-caps">Lord</font> God" (in the [[New Testament]])<br />
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The use of capitalisation, as for a proper noun, has persisted to disambiguate the concept of a singular ''God'' from [[pagan]] deities for which lowercase ''god'' has continued to be applied, mirroring the use of Latin ''deus''. Pronouns referring to God are also often capitalised and are traditionally in the masculine [[gender (grammar)|gender]], i.e. "He", "His" etc.<br />
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==Names of Gods==<br />
{{Main|Names of God}}<br />
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The generic term ''God'' is the proper English name used for the deity of [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] faiths. Different names for God exist within different religious traditions. <br />
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*[[Allah]]&mdash;[[Islam]]/[[Arabic language|Arabic]]. See also the [[Ninety-nine names of Allah]]<br />
*[[Jehovah]], [[Yahweh]] (based on the Hebrew name ''YHVH'' (&#1497;&#1492;&#1493;&#1492;), I am, and [[Elohim]] are some of the names used for God in the Christian [[Bible]]<br />
*See [[The name of God in Judaism]] for Jewish names of God. (Note: when written or typed as a proper noun, some observant Jews will use the form "G-d" to prevent the written name of God from becoming desecrated later on. Some Orthodox Jews consider this unnecessary because English is not the Holy Language.)<br />
*The [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]] (meaning the Father, the Son ([[Jesus]] [[Christ]]), and the [[Holy Spirit]]/"[[Holy Ghost]]") - A name used primarily in [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox]] prayers and liturgy. <br />
*Most [[Hindu]]s worship the personal form of God or [[Saguna Brahman]], or [[Hindu trinity]], as [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]], or directly as [[Brahman]] through the [[Gayatri mantra]]. A common prayer for Hindus is the [[Vishnu sahasranama]], which is a hymn describing the one thousand names of God. See <br />
*[[Sikhs]] worship God with the name [[Waheguru]].<br />
*[[Jah]] is the name of God in the [[Rastafari movement]].<br />
*God is called ''Xavier'' in the [[Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox]] Church.<br />
*Some churches ([[United Church of Canada]], [[Religious Science]]) are using "the One" alongside "God" as a more gender-neutral way of referring to God (See also [[Oneness]]).<br />
*The [[Maasai]] name for "God" is [[Ngai]], which occurs in the [[volcano]] name [[Ol Doinyo Lengai]] ("the mountain of God").<br />
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==History of monotheism==<br />
''See also [[monotheism]].''<br />
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The religions widely thought of as monotheistic today are of relatively recent origin historically, although Eastern religions (notably religions of [[China]] and [[India]]) that have concepts of [[panentheism]] are difficult to classify along [[Western world|Western]] notions of monotheism vs. polytheism, and sometimes have claims of being very ancient, if not eternal.<br />
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In the [[Ancient Orient]], many cities had their own local god, but this [[henotheistic]] worship of a single god did not imply denial of the existence of other gods. The [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] [[Ark of the Covenant]] adapted this practice to a [[nomad]]ic lifestyle, paving their way for a singular God. The cult of the solar god [[Aten]] is often cited as the earliest known example of monotheism, but even if [[Akhetaten]]'s [[Great Hymn to the Aten|hymn to Aten]] praises this god as omnipotent creator, worship of other gods beside him never ceased. Early examples of monotheism also include two late [[rigveda|rigvedic]] hymns (10.129,130) to a [[Panentheistic]] [[creator god]], [[Shri Rudram]], a [[Vedic]] hymn to [[Rudra]], an earlier aspect of [[Shiva]], which expressed [[monistic theism]], and is still chanted today, the [[Zoroastrian]] [[Ahuramazda]] and [[China|Chinese]] [[Shang Ti]]. The worship of polytheistic gods, on the other hand, is seen by many to predate monotheism, reaching back as far as the [[paleolithic]]. Today, monotheistic religions are dominant, but other systems of belief still exist.<br />
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==The existence of God ==<br />
While belief in God can be considered solely a matter of faith ([[Fideism]]), there are also many intellectual [[arguments for the existence of God|arguments for]] as well as [[arguments against the existence of God|arguments against]] the existence of God.<br />
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==Theology==<br />
[[Theology]] is the study of religious beliefs. Theologians attempt to explicate (and in some cases systematize) beliefs; some express their own experience of the divine. Theologians ask questions such as: What is the nature of God? What does it mean for God to be singular? If people believe in God as a duality or trinity, what do these terms signify? Is God [[transcendent]], [[immanent]], or some mix of the two? What is the relationship between God and the universe, and God and mankind?<br />
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* [[Theism]] holds that God is both [[transcendent]] and [[immanent]]; thus, God is simultaneously infinite and in some way present in the affairs of the world. Catholic theology holds that God is [[divine simplicity|infinitely simple]] and is [[eternity|outside of time]]. Most theists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, although this belief raises questions about God's responsibility for evil and suffering in the world. Some theists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence, omniscience, or benevolence. [[Open Theism]], by contrast, asserts that God has limits. "Theism" is sometimes used to refer in general to any belief in a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.<br />
* [[Deism]] holds that God is wholly transcendent: God exists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what was necessary for God to create it. In this view, God is not [[anthropomorphic]], and does not literally answer prayers or cause [[miracle]]s to occur.<br />
* [[Monotheism]] holds that there is only one God, and/or that the one true God is worshipped in different religions under different names. It is important to note, however, that monotheists of one religion can, and often do, consider the monotheistic god of a different religion to be a false god. For instance, many Christian fundamentalists consider the God of Islam ([[Allah]]) to be a false god or [[demon]] (although theologians and linguists argue that "Allah" is merely the Arabic word for "God," and not the literal name of a specifically Muslim god). Many Jews consider the [[messiah]] of Christianity ([[Jesus]]) to be a false god and some monotheists (notably fundamentalist Christians) hold that there is one [[triune]] God, and that all gods of other religions are actually demons in disguise (as in [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_2_Corinthians#Chapter_11 2nd Corinthians 11] verse 14). Eastern religious believers and [[Liberal Christian]]s are more likely to assume those of other faiths worship the same God as they.<br />
* [[Pantheism]] holds that God is the universe and the universe is God. [[Panentheism]] holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe. The distinctions between the two are subtle, and many consider them unhelpful. [[Kabbalah]], Jewish mysticism, paints a [[pantheistic]]/[[panentheism|panentheistic]] view of God, which has wide acceptance in [[Hasidic Judaism]], particularly from their founder [[Israel ben Eliezer|The Baal Shem Tov]]. It is also the view of the [[Liberal Catholic Church]], [[Theosophy]], [[Hinduism]], some divisions of [[Buddhism]], and [[Taoism]], along with many varying denominations and individuals within denominations. <br />
* [[Dystheism]] is a form of theism which holds that God is malevolent as a consequence of the [[problem of evil]]. Dystheistic speculation is common in theology, but there is no known church of practicing dystheists. See also [[Satanism]].<br />
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Most believers allow for the existence of other, less powerful spiritual beings, and give them names such as [[angel]]s, [[saint]]s, [[Djinn]], [[demon]]s, and [[devas]].<br />
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==Conceptions of God==<br />
===Jewish, Christian and Muslim conceptions===<br />
[[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] see God as a being who created the world and rules over the universe. God is usually held to have the properties of [[holiness]] (separate from sin and incorruptible), [[Justice|justness]] (fair, right, and true in all His judgements), [[sovereignty]] (unthwartable in His will), [[omnipotence]] (all-powerful), [[omniscience]] (all-knowing), [[omnibenevolence]] (all-loving), and [[omnipresence]] (everywhere-present).<br />
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Jews, Christians and Muslims often conceive of God as a [[personal God]], with a will and personality. However, many medieval [[rationalist]] philosophers of these religions felt that one should not view God as personal, and that such personal descriptions of God are only meant as [[metaphor]]s. Some within these three faiths still accept these views as valid, although many of the [[laity]] today do not have a wide awareness of them.<br />
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In [[Eastern Christianity]], it remains essential that God be personal; hence it speaks of the three ''persons'' of the [[Trinity]]. It also emphasizes that God has a will, and that God the Son has two wills, divine and human, though these are never in conflict. The personhood of God and of all human people is essential to the concept of [[theosis]] or deification.<br />
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====Djinn Theory====<br />
This brings to light the argument raised in such written works as [[The Hiram Key]] that God, or 'the God of Abraham and his fathers' was in that citation the personal God of Abraham's family house. It was traditional in the Mesopotamian, Sumarian and Egyptian regions for each house to have a God (Similar to a [[Djinn]]) that would be evoked to protect them. After the fall of Sumer, Abraham travelled to Egypt bringing with him his family God.<br />
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Sumerian knowledge of medicine, science and construction engineering was superior to most at that time, so Abraham would have appeared to be exceptionally wise, if not Godlike himself to the people.<br />
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Further illustration of the God/Djinn theory arises in the Judeao Old Testament in the light of Moses on Mount Sinai, on arriving the God spoke to him and demanded he take off his shoes, as he was walking on holy ground (Something even a youthful reader of the Arabian Nights saga, or any middle eastern fiction or non-fiction books on Djinns would definately accertain to be a Djinn attempting to exhibit force over a subject.) whence immediately countered by Abraham with, "What is your name?".<br />
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This lies as proof that Abraham thought the entity he was talking to was a Djinn, traditionally through out history the name of an entity gives one power over it, this was in fact Abraham attempting to capture this Djinn. Afterwards he returned from Mt Sinai with instructions to his people of what to melt down the Sacred Calf ([[Hathor]]) into, that being the Ark of the Covenant. What entity can be captured and carried in a container? The Supreme Being? Or a Djinn. History would teach us the latter.<br />
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==== Biblical definition of God====<br />
The [[Hebrew Bible]] ([[Old Testament]]) characterizes God by these attributes: "The LORD, the LORD God, merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness, keeping steadfast love for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin, but who will by no means clear the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children and the children's children, to the third and the fourth generation." (Exodus 34:6&ndash;7)<br />
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The [[Hebrew Bible]] contains no systematic theology: No attempt is made to give a [[Philosophy|philosophical]] or rigorous definition of God, nor of how God acts in the world. It does not explicitly describe God's nature, exemplified by God's assertion in [[Exodus]] that "you cannot see my face; for man shall not see me and live". Nowhere in the Hebrew Bible are the words [[omnipotence|omnipotent]], [[omniscience|omniscient]], or [[omnibenevolence|omnibenevolent]] used to define God in a systematic sense.<br />
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Although Scripture does not describe God systematically, however, it does provide a poetic depiction of God and His relationship with people. According to the biblical historian [[Yehezkal Kaufmann]], the essential innovation of Biblical theology was to posit a God that cares about people, and that cares about whether people care about Him. Most people believe that the Bible should be viewed as humanity's view of God, but theologian [[Abraham Joshua Heschel]] described the Biblical God as "anthropopathic", which means that one should read the Bible as God's view of humanity, and not as humanity's view of God.<br />
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Similarly, the [[New Testament]] contains no systematic theology: no attempt is made to give a philosophical or rigorous definition of God, nor of how God acts in the world. The New Testament does, however, provide an implicit theology as it teaches that God became human while remaining fully God, in the person of [[Jesus]], and that he subsequently sent the [[Holy Spirit]]. In this view, God becomes someone that can be seen and touched, and may speak and act in a manner easily perceived by humans, while also remaining transcendent and invisible. This appears to be a radical departure from the concepts of God found in Hebrew Bible. The New Testament's statements regarding the nature of God were eventually developed into the doctrine of the [[Trinity]].<br />
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==== Kabbalistic definition of God ====<br />
[[Kabbalah]] ([[Judaism|Jewish]] [[mysticism]]) teaches that God is neither [[matter]] nor [[spirit]]. Rather God is the creator of both, but is himself neither. But if God is so different from his creation, how can there be any interaction between the Creator and the created? This question prompted Kabbalists to envision two aspects of God, (a) God himself, who in the end is unknowable, and (b) the revealed aspect of God who created the universe, preserves the universe, and interacts with mankind in a personal way. Kabbalists believe that these two aspects are not contradictory but complement one another.<br />
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====Quranic definitions of God, i.e. ''Allah''====<br />
''Main article'': [[Allah]]<br />
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''Allah'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''all&#x101;hu'' &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1607;) is traditionally used by [[Muslim]]s as the Arabic word for "[[God]]" (not "God's personal [[name]]", but the equivalent of the Hebrew word [[El]] as opposed to [[YHWH]]). The word ''Allah'' is not specific to [[Islam]]; [[Arab Christians]] and [[Mizrahi Jew|Arab Jews]] also use it to refer to the [[monotheist]] [[deity]]. Arabic translations of the [[Bible]] also employ it, as do the [[Catholics]] of [[Malta]] who pronounce it as "Alla" in [[Maltese language|Maltese]], a language derived from and most closely related to Arabic, as well as [[Christians]] in [[Indonesia]], who pronounce it "Allah Bapa" (Allah the Father).<br />
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Many [[Linguistics|linguists]] believe that the term ''All&#257;h'' is derived from a contraction of the Arabic words ''al'' (the) + ''ilah'' (male deity). In addition, one of the main pagan goddesses of pre-Islamic Arabia, [[Allat|All&#257;t]] (''al'' + ''il&#257;h'' + ''at'', or 'the female deity'), is cited as being [[Etymology|etymologically]] (though not synchronically) the feminine linguistic counterpart to the grammatically masculine Allah. If so, the word ''All&#257;h'' is an abbreviated title, meaning 'the deity', rather than a name. For this reason, both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars often translate All&#257;h directly into English as 'God' especially the [[Quran Alone]] Muslims; however, some Muslim scholars feel that "All&#257;h" should not be translated, because it expresses the uniqueness of God more accurately than "God", which can take a plural "Gods", whereas "All&#257;h" has no plural. This is a significant issue in [[translation of the Qur'an]]. This also explains why Arabic-speaking Jews and Christians freely refer to God as All&#257;h.<br />
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Most of the 99 names of God found in the Qur'an are not actually names, but attributes. One, however, Al Haq, meaning The Truth, seems to equate to absolute truth as that which cannot be negated. Al Haq is more than a reflection of faith in the existence of The God, and links the concept of God to all creation forever. Thus Allah transcends the prophetic origins of Islam and is thus universal in all time and applies to all existence -- past, present, and future.<br />
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====Negative theology====<br />
''Main article: [[Negative theology]].''<br />
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Some Jewish, Christian and Muslim [[medieval]] philosophers developed what is termed as [[negative theology]], the idea of approaching a knowledge of God through negative attributes. For example, we should not say that God exists in the usual sense of the term; all we can safely say is that God is not nonexistent. We should not say that God is wise, but we can say that God is not ignorant. We should not say that God is One, but we can state that there is [[divine simplicity|no multiplicity in God's being]].<br />
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==== God as Unity or Trinity ====<br />
[[Judaism|Jews]], [[Islam|Muslims]], and a small fraction of [[Christianity|Christians]] are ''unitarian monotheists''. The vast majority of Christians have been and still are ''Trinitarian monotheists'' stemming from [[Ancient Egyptian]] [[mystery sects]]. <br />
* [[Unitarian]] monotheists hold that there is only one "person" (so to speak), or one basic substance, in God. Some adherents of this position consider Trinitarianism to be a form of polytheism.<br />
* Trinitarian monotheists believe in one God that exists as three distinct persons who share the same substance/essence; the Christian version of this is called the [[Trinity]], the [[Hindu]] version [[Trimurti]]. Trinitarians hold that the three persons have the same purpose, holiness, and sovereignty, and therefore each can be worshipped as God, without violating the idea that there is only one God to which worship belongs.<br />
* [[Mormon]]s believe that there are three separate divine personages. One of these personages is a spirit without a body referred to as the [[Holy Ghost]]. The other two personages are spirits with ''perfected'' or ''glorified'' (often called ''celestial'') bodies referred to as [[Heavenly Father]] (or less commonly "[[Elohim]]") and his son, Jesus Christ. Mormons hold that God is a ''Holy Man'' who advanced to his divine status through a repeatable process of progression. They believe that by following their religion's teachings, humans can literally become gods (sometimes phrased as "become like Heavenly Father") at some point after death and [[resurrection]]; this is also called [[Exaltation]].<br />
* [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarians]] believe that [[Haile Selassie]] is both God the Father and God the Son, made manifest in human flesh as the reincarnation of Jesus, while the Holy Spirit is seen to dwell within all believers (of Rastafari), and within all people (believed by some).<br />
* [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic Jews]] hold that there are ten [[Sephirah|Sefirot]] (emanations) of God. Each of these are more distinct than a characteristic, but less distinct than a separate personage.<br />
* [[Monism]] is the [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] position that all is of one essential [[essence]], [[matter|substance]] or [[energy]], that being a [[pantheist]], or [[panentheist]], [[immanent]] God. Monism can be inclusive of other interpretations of God.<br />
* [[Dualism]] is the idea of two, nearly equal divine entities, one being the good God, and the other being an evil god, or [[Satan]]. All beings are under the influence of one side, or the other, if they know it or not. [[Zoroastrianism]] is an example of dualism.<br />
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===Hindu Conceptions of God===<br />
* In [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]], [[Hindus]] believe that God, whether in the form of [[Shiva]] or [[Vishnu]] has six attributes. However, the actual number of auspicious qualities of God, are '''countless''', with the following six qualities being the ''most important''. <br />
* The number six is invariably given, but the individual attributes listed vary.<br />
* One set of attributes (and their common interpretations) are <br />
**''Jnana'' ([[Omniscience]]), defined as the power to know about all beings simultaneously;<br />
**''Aishvarya'' ([[Sovereign]]ty), which consists in unchallenged rule over all; <br />
**''Shakti'' ([[Energy]]), or power, which is the capacity to make the impossible possible;<br />
**''Bala'' ([[Strength]]), which is the capacity to support everything by will and without any fatigue; <br />
**''Virya'' ([[Vigour]]), or valour which indicates the power to retain immateriality as the supreme being in spite of being the material cause of mutable creations; and <br />
**''Tejas'' ([[Splendour]]), which expresses his self-sufficiency and the capacity to overpower everything by his spiritual effulgence.; cited from ''Bhakti Schools of Vedanta'', by Swami Tapasyananda.<br />
* A second set of six characteristics are <br />
**''Jnana'' ([[Omniscience]]),<br />
**''Vairagya'' ([[Detachment]]),<br />
**''Yasas'' ([[Fame]]),<br />
**''Aisvarya'' ([[Sovereign]]ty),<br />
**''Sri'' ([[Glory]]) and<br />
**''Dharma'' ([[Righteousness]]). <br />
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*Other important qualities attributed to God are ''Gambhirya'' (grandeur), ''Audarya'' (generosity), and ''Karunya'' (compassion).<br />
* Chanted prayers, or [[mantra]]s, are central to Hindu worship. Among the most chanted mantras in Hinduism are the [[Vishnu sahasranama]] (a prayer to [[Vishnu]] that dates from the time of the [[Mahabharata]] and describes him as the ''Universal [[Brahman]]''), [[Shri Rudram]] (a Vedic hymn to Rudra, an earlier aspect of Shiva that also describes Him as Brahman) and the [[Gayatri]] mantra, (another Vedic hymn that initially was meant as a prayer to the Sun, an aspect of Brahman but has other interpretations. It is now interpreted as a prayer to the impersonal absolute Brahman). Another famous hymn, [[Lalitha Sahasranama]], describes the 1000 names of [[Devi]], worshipped as God the Divine Mother, or God's [[Shakti]] or Power personified by Hindus.<br />
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* It is important to add that in Hinduism (''Sanatan Dharam'') God is considered the Supreme Being, and many views of God range from panentheism to dualism. His appearance, in its entirety, cannot be comprehended by the common man. His appearance with form is only a manifestation of certain characteristics. <br />
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In Hinduism there are two methods of worship:<br />
#To worship God through meditation on an icon ([[murti]]).<br />
#To worship God without icon worship.<br />
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=== The Ultimate ===<br />
Arguably, Eastern conceptions of [[The Ultimate]] (this, too, has many different names) are not conceptions of a ''personal'' divinity, though certain Western conceptions of what is at least ''called'' "God" (e.g., [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza's]] pantheistic conception and various kinds of [[mysticism]]) resemble Eastern conceptions of The Ultimate.<br />
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=== Aristotelian definition of God ===<br />
''Main article: [[Aristotelian view of God]].''<br />
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In his [[Metaphysics]], [[Aristotle]] discusses the meaning of "being as being". Aristotle holds that "being" primarily refers to the [[Unmoved Mover]]s, and assigned one of these to each movement in the heavens. Each Unmoved Mover continuously contemplates its own contemplation, and everything that fits the second meaning of "being" by having its source of motion in itself, moves because the knowledge of its Mover causes it to emulate this Mover (or should).<br />
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=== Modern views ===<br />
====Mathematical definitions====<br />
* The mathematician [[Georg Cantor]] identified God with the mathematical concept of the [[Absolute Infinite]].<br />
* [[Kurt Gödel]]'s "[[Gödel's ontological proof|ontological proof]]" is a mathematical formulation of [[Saint Anselm]]'s [[ontological argument]].<br />
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==== Process philosophy and Open Theism definition of God ====<br />
* [[Process theology]] is a school of thought influenced by the metaphysical [[process philosophy]] of [[Alfred North Whitehead]] ([[1861]]&ndash;[[1947]]). <br />
* [[Open theism]], a theological movement that began in the 1990s, is similar, but not identical, to Process theology.<br />
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In both views, God is not omnipotent in the classical sense of a coercive being. Reality is not made up of material substances that endure through time, but serially-ordered events, which are experiential in nature. The universe is characterized by process and change carried out by the agents of free will. Self-determination characterizes everything in the universe, not just human beings. God and creatures co-create. God cannot force anything to happen, but rather only influence the exercise of this universal free will by offering possibilities. See the entries on [[Process theology]], [[Panentheism]], and [[Open theism]].<br />
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====Posthuman God====<br />
Similar to this theory is the belief or aspiration that humans will create a God entity, emerging from an [[artificial intelligence]].<br />
[[Arthur C. Clarke]], a science fiction writer, said in an interview that: <br />
''It may be that our role on this planet is not to worship God, but to create him.'' This idea is expounded upon in his short story, [[The Final Query]]<br />
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Another variant on this hypothesis is that humanity or a segment of humanity will create or [[evolution|evolve]] into a [[posthuman]] God by itself; for some examples, see [[cosmotheism]], [[transhumanism]], [[technological singularity]].<br />
<br />
====Extraterrestrials====<br />
Some comparatively new belief systems and books portray God as [[Extraterrestrial life]]. Many of these theories hold that intelligent beings from another world have been visiting Earth for many thousands of years, and have influenced the development of our religions. Some of these books posit that prophets or [[messiah]]s were sent to the human race in order to teach [[morality]] and encourage the development of [[civilization]]. (See e.g. [[Rael]]).<br />
<br />
====Phenomenological definition====<br />
The philosopher [[Michel Henry]] defines God in a phenomenological point of view. He says : « God is Life, he is the essence of [[Philosophy of the life|Life]], or, if we prefere, the essence of Life is God. Saying this we already know what is God, we know it not by the effect of a learning or of some knowledge, we don&#8217;t know it by the thought, on the background of the truth of the world ; we know it and we can know it only in and by the Life itself. We can know it only in God. » (''That&#8217;s me the Truth. Toward a philosophy of Christianity'').<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
* [[Karen Armstrong]], <cite>A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam</cite>, Ballantine Books, 1994 <br />
* [[Jack Miles]], <cite>God : A Biography</cite>, Knopf, 1995. [http://www.jackmiles.com/default.asp?ID=15]<br />
* [[Cliff Pickover]], <cite>The Paradox of God and the Science of Omniscience</cite>, Palgrave/St Martin's Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
==See also== <br />
* [[Atheism]]<br />
* [[Agnosticism]]<br />
* [[Arguments for the existence of God]]<br />
* [[Arguments against the existence of God]]<br />
* [[God and gender]]<br />
* [[God complex]]<br />
* [[God in Buddhism]]<br />
* [[God realm]]<br />
* [[List of appearances of God in fiction]]<br />
* [[Natural theology]] <br />
* [[Higgs boson|The Higgs boson, ''the God particle'']]<br />
* [[Transtheism]]<br />
<br />
== External links==<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
*Draye, Hani (2004). [http://sultan.org/articles/god.html Concept of God in Islam]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*HaTorah, Yeshivat Aish (2003). [http://www.aish.com/literacy/concepts/Understanding_God.asp Jewish Literacy]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Nicholls, David (2004). [http://web.archive.org/web/20041013082021/http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/doesgodexist.htm DOES GOD EXIST?]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*shaivam.org (2004). [http://www.shaivam.org/hipgodco.htm Hindu Concept of God]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Shlect, Joel (2004). [http://www.freewebs.com/thegodparticle/ The God Particle]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2004). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-arguments-god/ Moral Arguments for the Existence of God]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2005). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/god-necessary-being/ God and Other Necessary Beings]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Students of Shari'ah (2005). [http://www.studentsofshariah.com/proof_of_creator.php Proof Of Creator]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*The Freethought Zone (2000). [http://freethought.freeservers.com/reason/rationalview.html Arguments for Atheism]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
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[[Category:Bahá'í]]<br />
[[Category:Christianity]]<br />
[[Category:Deities]] <br />
[[Category:Islam]] <br />
[[Category:Judaism]] <br />
[[Category:Singular God]]<br />
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[[fr:Dieu]]<br />
[[he:&#1488;&#1500;&#1493;&#1492;&#1497;&#1501;]]<br />
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[[zh:&#31070;]]</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=God&diff=4853God2005-07-09T08:06:36Z<p>Jachin: </p>
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<div>The term '''God''' is used to designate a '''Supreme Being'''; however, there are other definitions of God. For example:<br />
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*Many religious and philosophic systems consider a God to be the [[Creator God|creator]] of the [[omniverse]]. <br />
*Some traditions hold that the creator of the omniverse is also the sustainer of the omniverse (as in [[theism]]), while others argue that their God is no longer involved in the world after creation (as in [[deism]]).<br />
*The common definition of a God assumes [[omnipotence]], [[omniscience]] and [[benevolence]]. However, not all systems hold that a God is necessarily [[morality|morally]] good (see [[summum bonum]]). Others maintain that a God is beyond the limited human understanding of morality. [[Negative theology]] argues that no true statements about attributes of a God can be made at all, while [[agnostic]] positions argue that limited human understanding does not allow for any conclusive opinions on God whatsoever. Some mystical traditions ascribe limits to a God's powers, arguing that a God's supreme nature leaves no room for spontaneity.<br />
*The concept of a singular God is characteristic of [[monotheism]], but there is no universal definition of monotheism. The differences between monotheism and [[polytheism]] vary among traditions (see also [[trinity]], [[dualism]], and [[henotheism]]).<br />
*Some concepts of a God may include [[anthropomorphic]] attributes, [[God and gender|gender]], particular [[Names of God|names]], and ethnic exclusivity (see [[Chosen people]]), while others are purely transcendent or philosophic concepts.<br />
* Some concepts of a God centre on a view of said God as ultimate, immanent, transcendent, eternal Reality beyond the shifting and constantly mutable multiplicities of the sensible world. <br />
*The concept of God is often connected to principles of [[absolute morality]] or truth. <br />
*There are variations on defining a God either as a person, or not as a person but as an ambiguous impersonal force (see [[Absolute Infinite]]). Also at stake are questions concerning the possibilities of human/God relations. There are countless variations in traditions of worship and/or appeasement of a God.<br />
*Some espouse an exclusionist view, holding to one sole definition of a God. Others hold an inclusionist view, accepting the possibility of more than one definition of God to be true at the same time. <br />
*There are also [[atheism|atheistic]] explanations for the concept of a God that can include psychological and/or sociological factors.<br />
<br />
== Etymology ==<br />
The word ''God'' continues [[Old English]]/[[Germanic languages|Germanic]] ''god'' (''gu&thorn;, gudis'' in [[Gothic]], ''Gott'' in modern [[German language|German]]). The original meaning and [[etymology]] of the Germanic word ''god'' has been hotly disputed, though most agree to a reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European]] form ''*&#501;hutóm'', which is a passive perfect participle from the root ''*&#501;hu-'', which likely meant "[[libation]]", "[[sacrifice]]". Compare:-<br />
* [[Vedic]] [[Sanskrit]] ''hu-'' = "to sacrifice".<br />
* [[Greek language|Greek]] ''khu-'', ''kheu-'' = "to pour".<br />
* Common [[Germanic]] strong verb ''geutan'' ([[Anglo-Saxon]] ''g&#275;otan'') = "to pour", English ''[[ingot|in-got]]''.<br />
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The connection between these meanings is likely via the meaning "pour a [[libation]]". Another possible meaning of ''*&#501;hutóm'' is "invocation", related to [[Sanskrit]] ''h&#363;ta''.<br />
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The word ''God'' was used to represent [[Greek language|Greek]] ''theos'', [[Latin]] ''deus'' in [[Bible]] translations, first in the Gothic translation of the [[New Testament]] by [[Ulfilas]].<br />
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Philologically, Gk. ''theos'' is said to be akin to Zeus, the chief god in Greek mythology, who has ''Dios'' in a genitive form. L. ''Diespiter'' means Jupiter, chief god in L. mythology, dies + pater, day + father. In Skr. ''deva'' is a god, as derived from the root ''div'', heaven, and ''diu'' denoting day, shine and brightness (L. ''niter''). See [[Sky Father]], and [[Dyeus]].<br />
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===Capitalisation===<br />
The development of English orthography was dominated by [[Christianity|Christian]] texts. Capitalised "God" was first used to refer to the Judeo-Christian concept, and may now signify any monotheistic conception of God, including the translations of the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''[[Allah]]'' and the African [[Masai]] ''[[Engai]]''.<br />
<br />
In early English bibles, the [[Tetragrammaton]] was rendered in capitals: "IEHOUAH" in [[William Tyndale]]'s version of [[1525]]. The [[KJV|King James Version]] of [[1611]] renders<br />
*''[[YHWH]]'' as "The <font style="font-variant:small-caps">Lord</font>"<br />
*''[[Elohim]]'' as "God"<br />
*''Adonay YHWH'' and ''Adonay Elohim'' as "<font style="font-variant:small-caps">Lord</font> God"<br />
*''kurios ho theos'' as "<font style="font-variant:small-caps">Lord</font> God" (in the [[New Testament]])<br />
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The use of capitalisation, as for a proper noun, has persisted to disambiguate the concept of a singular ''God'' from [[pagan]] deities for which lowercase ''god'' has continued to be applied, mirroring the use of Latin ''deus''. Pronouns referring to God are also often capitalised and are traditionally in the masculine [[gender (grammar)|gender]], i.e. "He", "His" etc.<br />
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==Names of Gods==<br />
{{Main|Names of God}}<br />
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The generic term ''God'' is the proper English name used for the deity of [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] faiths. Different names for God exist within different religious traditions. <br />
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*[[Allah]]&mdash;[[Islam]]/[[Arabic language|Arabic]]. See also the [[Ninety-nine names of Allah]]<br />
*[[Jehovah]], [[Yahweh]] (based on the Hebrew name ''YHVH'' (&#1497;&#1492;&#1493;&#1492;), I am, and [[Elohim]] are some of the names used for God in the Christian [[Bible]]<br />
*See [[The name of God in Judaism]] for Jewish names of God. (Note: when written or typed as a proper noun, some observant Jews will use the form "G-d" to prevent the written name of God from becoming desecrated later on. Some Orthodox Jews consider this unnecessary because English is not the Holy Language.)<br />
*The [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]] (meaning the Father, the Son ([[Jesus]] [[Christ]]), and the [[Holy Spirit]]/"[[Holy Ghost]]") - A name used primarily in [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox]] prayers and liturgy. <br />
*Most [[Hindu]]s worship the personal form of God or [[Saguna Brahman]], or [[Hindu trinity]], as [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]], or directly as [[Brahman]] through the [[Gayatri mantra]]. A common prayer for Hindus is the [[Vishnu sahasranama]], which is a hymn describing the one thousand names of God. See <br />
*[[Sikhs]] worship God with the name [[Waheguru]].<br />
*[[Jah]] is the name of God in the [[Rastafari movement]].<br />
*God is called ''Xavier'' in the [[Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox]] Church.<br />
*Some churches ([[United Church of Canada]], [[Religious Science]]) are using "the One" alongside "God" as a more gender-neutral way of referring to God (See also [[Oneness]]).<br />
*The [[Maasai]] name for "God" is [[Ngai]], which occurs in the [[volcano]] name [[Ol Doinyo Lengai]] ("the mountain of God").<br />
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==History of monotheism==<br />
''See also [[monotheism]].''<br />
<br />
The religions widely thought of as monotheistic today are of relatively recent origin historically, although Eastern religions (notably religions of [[China]] and [[India]]) that have concepts of [[panentheism]] are difficult to classify along [[Western world|Western]] notions of monotheism vs. polytheism, and sometimes have claims of being very ancient, if not eternal.<br />
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In the [[Ancient Orient]], many cities had their own local god, but this [[henotheistic]] worship of a single god did not imply denial of the existence of other gods. The [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] [[Ark of the Covenant]] adapted this practice to a [[nomad]]ic lifestyle, paving their way for a singular God. The cult of the solar god [[Aten]] is often cited as the earliest known example of monotheism, but even if [[Akhetaten]]'s [[Great Hymn to the Aten|hymn to Aten]] praises this god as omnipotent creator, worship of other gods beside him never ceased. Early examples of monotheism also include two late [[rigveda|rigvedic]] hymns (10.129,130) to a [[Panentheistic]] [[creator god]], [[Shri Rudram]], a [[Vedic]] hymn to [[Rudra]], an earlier aspect of [[Shiva]], which expressed [[monistic theism]], and is still chanted today, the [[Zoroastrian]] [[Ahuramazda]] and [[China|Chinese]] [[Shang Ti]]. The worship of polytheistic gods, on the other hand, is seen by many to predate monotheism, reaching back as far as the [[paleolithic]]. Today, monotheistic religions are dominant, but other systems of belief still exist.<br />
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==The existence of God ==<br />
While belief in God can be considered solely a matter of faith ([[Fideism]]), there are also many intellectual [[arguments for the existence of God|arguments for]] as well as [[arguments against the existence of God|arguments against]] the existence of God.<br />
<br />
==Theology==<br />
[[Theology]] is the study of religious beliefs. Theologians attempt to explicate (and in some cases systematize) beliefs; some express their own experience of the divine. Theologians ask questions such as: What is the nature of God? What does it mean for God to be singular? If people believe in God as a duality or trinity, what do these terms signify? Is God [[transcendent]], [[immanent]], or some mix of the two? What is the relationship between God and the universe, and God and mankind?<br />
<br />
* [[Theism]] holds that God is both [[transcendent]] and [[immanent]]; thus, God is simultaneously infinite and in some way present in the affairs of the world. Catholic theology holds that God is [[divine simplicity|infinitely simple]] and is [[eternity|outside of time]]. Most theists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, although this belief raises questions about God's responsibility for evil and suffering in the world. Some theists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence, omniscience, or benevolence. [[Open Theism]], by contrast, asserts that God has limits. "Theism" is sometimes used to refer in general to any belief in a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.<br />
* [[Deism]] holds that God is wholly transcendent: God exists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what was necessary for God to create it. In this view, God is not [[anthropomorphic]], and does not literally answer prayers or cause [[miracle]]s to occur.<br />
* [[Monotheism]] holds that there is only one God, and/or that the one true God is worshipped in different religions under different names. It is important to note, however, that monotheists of one religion can, and often do, consider the monotheistic god of a different religion to be a false god. For instance, many Christian fundamentalists consider the God of Islam ([[Allah]]) to be a false god or [[demon]] (although theologians and linguists argue that "Allah" is merely the Arabic word for "God," and not the literal name of a specifically Muslim god). Many Jews consider the [[messiah]] of Christianity ([[Jesus]]) to be a false god and some monotheists (notably fundamentalist Christians) hold that there is one [[triune]] God, and that all gods of other religions are actually demons in disguise (as in [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_2_Corinthians#Chapter_11 2nd Corinthians 11] verse 14). Eastern religious believers and [[Liberal Christian]]s are more likely to assume those of other faiths worship the same God as they.<br />
* [[Pantheism]] holds that God is the universe and the universe is God. [[Panentheism]] holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe. The distinctions between the two are subtle, and many consider them unhelpful. [[Kabbalah]], Jewish mysticism, paints a [[pantheistic]]/[[panentheism|panentheistic]] view of God, which has wide acceptance in [[Hasidic Judaism]], particularly from their founder [[Israel ben Eliezer|The Baal Shem Tov]]. It is also the view of the [[Liberal Catholic Church]], [[Theosophy]], [[Hinduism]], some divisions of [[Buddhism]], and [[Taoism]], along with many varying denominations and individuals within denominations. <br />
* [[Dystheism]] is a form of theism which holds that God is malevolent as a consequence of the [[problem of evil]]. Dystheistic speculation is common in theology, but there is no known church of practicing dystheists. See also [[Satanism]].<br />
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Most believers allow for the existence of other, less powerful spiritual beings, and give them names such as [[angel]]s, [[saint]]s, [[Djinn]], [[demon]]s, and [[devas]].<br />
<br />
==Conceptions of God==<br />
===Jewish, Christian and Muslim conceptions===<br />
[[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] see God as a being who created the world and rules over the universe. God is usually held to have the properties of [[holiness]] (separate from sin and incorruptible), [[Justice|justness]] (fair, right, and true in all His judgements), [[sovereignty]] (unthwartable in His will), [[omnipotence]] (all-powerful), [[omniscience]] (all-knowing), [[omnibenevolence]] (all-loving), and [[omnipresence]] (everywhere-present).<br />
<br />
Jews, Christians and Muslims often conceive of God as a [[personal God]], with a will and personality. However, many medieval [[rationalist]] philosophers of these religions felt that one should not view God as personal, and that such personal descriptions of God are only meant as [[metaphor]]s. Some within these three faiths still accept these views as valid, although many of the [[laity]] today do not have a wide awareness of them.<br />
<br />
In [[Eastern Christianity]], it remains essential that God be personal; hence it speaks of the three ''persons'' of the [[Trinity]]. It also emphasizes that God has a will, and that God the Son has two wills, divine and human, though these are never in conflict. The personhood of God and of all human people is essential to the concept of [[theosis]] or deification.<br />
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==== Biblical definition of God====<br />
The [[Hebrew Bible]] ([[Old Testament]]) characterizes God by these attributes: "The LORD, the LORD God, merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness, keeping steadfast love for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin, but who will by no means clear the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children and the children's children, to the third and the fourth generation." (Exodus 34:6&ndash;7)<br />
<br />
The [[Hebrew Bible]] contains no systematic theology: No attempt is made to give a [[Philosophy|philosophical]] or rigorous definition of God, nor of how God acts in the world. It does not explicitly describe God's nature, exemplified by God's assertion in [[Exodus]] that "you cannot see my face; for man shall not see me and live". Nowhere in the Hebrew Bible are the words [[omnipotence|omnipotent]], [[omniscience|omniscient]], or [[omnibenevolence|omnibenevolent]] used to define God in a systematic sense.<br />
<br />
Although Scripture does not describe God systematically, however, it does provide a poetic depiction of God and His relationship with people. According to the biblical historian [[Yehezkal Kaufmann]], the essential innovation of Biblical theology was to posit a God that cares about people, and that cares about whether people care about Him. Most people believe that the Bible should be viewed as humanity's view of God, but theologian [[Abraham Joshua Heschel]] described the Biblical God as "anthropopathic", which means that one should read the Bible as God's view of humanity, and not as humanity's view of God.<br />
<br />
Similarly, the [[New Testament]] contains no systematic theology: no attempt is made to give a philosophical or rigorous definition of God, nor of how God acts in the world. The New Testament does, however, provide an implicit theology as it teaches that God became human while remaining fully God, in the person of [[Jesus]], and that he subsequently sent the [[Holy Spirit]]. In this view, God becomes someone that can be seen and touched, and may speak and act in a manner easily perceived by humans, while also remaining transcendent and invisible. This appears to be a radical departure from the concepts of God found in Hebrew Bible. The New Testament's statements regarding the nature of God were eventually developed into the doctrine of the [[Trinity]].<br />
<br />
==== Kabbalistic definition of God ====<br />
[[Kabbalah]] ([[Judaism|Jewish]] [[mysticism]]) teaches that God is neither [[matter]] nor [[spirit]]. Rather God is the creator of both, but is himself neither. But if God is so different from his creation, how can there be any interaction between the Creator and the created? This question prompted Kabbalists to envision two aspects of God, (a) God himself, who in the end is unknowable, and (b) the revealed aspect of God who created the universe, preserves the universe, and interacts with mankind in a personal way. Kabbalists believe that these two aspects are not contradictory but complement one another.<br />
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====Quranic definitions of God, i.e. ''Allah''====<br />
''Main article'': [[Allah]]<br />
<br />
''Allah'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''all&#x101;hu'' &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1607;) is traditionally used by [[Muslim]]s as the Arabic word for "[[God]]" (not "God's personal [[name]]", but the equivalent of the Hebrew word [[El]] as opposed to [[YHWH]]). The word ''Allah'' is not specific to [[Islam]]; [[Arab Christians]] and [[Mizrahi Jew|Arab Jews]] also use it to refer to the [[monotheist]] [[deity]]. Arabic translations of the [[Bible]] also employ it, as do the [[Catholics]] of [[Malta]] who pronounce it as "Alla" in [[Maltese language|Maltese]], a language derived from and most closely related to Arabic, as well as [[Christians]] in [[Indonesia]], who pronounce it "Allah Bapa" (Allah the Father).<br />
<br />
Many [[Linguistics|linguists]] believe that the term ''All&#257;h'' is derived from a contraction of the Arabic words ''al'' (the) + ''ilah'' (male deity). In addition, one of the main pagan goddesses of pre-Islamic Arabia, [[Allat|All&#257;t]] (''al'' + ''il&#257;h'' + ''at'', or 'the female deity'), is cited as being [[Etymology|etymologically]] (though not synchronically) the feminine linguistic counterpart to the grammatically masculine Allah. If so, the word ''All&#257;h'' is an abbreviated title, meaning 'the deity', rather than a name. For this reason, both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars often translate All&#257;h directly into English as 'God' especially the [[Quran Alone]] Muslims; however, some Muslim scholars feel that "All&#257;h" should not be translated, because it expresses the uniqueness of God more accurately than "God", which can take a plural "Gods", whereas "All&#257;h" has no plural. This is a significant issue in [[translation of the Qur'an]]. This also explains why Arabic-speaking Jews and Christians freely refer to God as All&#257;h.<br />
<br />
Most of the 99 names of God found in the Qur'an are not actually names, but attributes. One, however, Al Haq, meaning The Truth, seems to equate to absolute truth as that which cannot be negated. Al Haq is more than a reflection of faith in the existence of The God, and links the concept of God to all creation forever. Thus Allah transcends the prophetic origins of Islam and is thus universal in all time and applies to all existence -- past, present, and future.<br />
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====Negative theology====<br />
''Main article: [[Negative theology]].''<br />
<br />
Some Jewish, Christian and Muslim [[medieval]] philosophers developed what is termed as [[negative theology]], the idea of approaching a knowledge of God through negative attributes. For example, we should not say that God exists in the usual sense of the term; all we can safely say is that God is not nonexistent. We should not say that God is wise, but we can say that God is not ignorant. We should not say that God is One, but we can state that there is [[divine simplicity|no multiplicity in God's being]].<br />
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==== God as Unity or Trinity ====<br />
[[Judaism|Jews]], [[Islam|Muslims]], and a small fraction of [[Christianity|Christians]] are ''unitarian monotheists''. The vast majority of Christians have been and still are ''Trinitarian monotheists''. <br />
* [[Unitarian]] monotheists hold that there is only one "person" (so to speak), or one basic substance, in God. Some adherents of this position consider Trinitarianism to be a form of polytheism.<br />
* Trinitarian monotheists believe in one God that exists as three distinct persons who share the same substance/essence; the Christian version of this is called the [[Trinity]], the [[Hindu]] version [[Trimurti]]. Trinitarians hold that the three persons have the same purpose, holiness, and sovereignty, and therefore each can be worshipped as God, without violating the idea that there is only one God to which worship belongs.<br />
* [[Mormon]]s believe that there are three separate divine personages. One of these personages is a spirit without a body referred to as the [[Holy Ghost]]. The other two personages are spirits with ''perfected'' or ''glorified'' (often called ''celestial'') bodies referred to as [[Heavenly Father]] (or less commonly "[[Elohim]]") and his son, Jesus Christ. Mormons hold that God is a ''Holy Man'' who advanced to his divine status through a repeatable process of progression. They believe that by following their religion's teachings, humans can literally become gods (sometimes phrased as "become like Heavenly Father") at some point after death and [[resurrection]]; this is also called [[Exaltation]].<br />
* [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarians]] believe that [[Haile Selassie]] is both God the Father and God the Son, made manifest in human flesh as the reincarnation of Jesus, while the Holy Spirit is seen to dwell within all believers (of Rastafari), and within all people (believed by some).<br />
* [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic Jews]] hold that there are ten [[Sephirah|Sefirot]] (emanations) of God. Each of these are more distinct than a characteristic, but less distinct than a separate personage.<br />
* [[Monism]] is the [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] position that all is of one essential [[essence]], [[matter|substance]] or [[energy]], that being a [[pantheist]], or [[panentheist]], [[immanent]] God. Monism can be inclusive of other interpretations of God.<br />
* [[Dualism]] is the idea of two, nearly equal divine entities, one being the good God, and the other being an evil god, or [[Satan]]. All beings are under the influence of one side, or the other, if they know it or not. [[Zoroastrianism]] is an example of dualism.<br />
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===Hindu Conceptions of God===<br />
* In [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]], [[Hindus]] believe that God, whether in the form of [[Shiva]] or [[Vishnu]] has six attributes. However, the actual number of auspicious qualities of God, are '''countless''', with the following six qualities being the ''most important''. <br />
* The number six is invariably given, but the individual attributes listed vary.<br />
* One set of attributes (and their common interpretations) are <br />
**''Jnana'' ([[Omniscience]]), defined as the power to know about all beings simultaneously;<br />
**''Aishvarya'' ([[Sovereign]]ty), which consists in unchallenged rule over all; <br />
**''Shakti'' ([[Energy]]), or power, which is the capacity to make the impossible possible;<br />
**''Bala'' ([[Strength]]), which is the capacity to support everything by will and without any fatigue; <br />
**''Virya'' ([[Vigour]]), or valour which indicates the power to retain immateriality as the supreme being in spite of being the material cause of mutable creations; and <br />
**''Tejas'' ([[Splendour]]), which expresses his self-sufficiency and the capacity to overpower everything by his spiritual effulgence.; cited from ''Bhakti Schools of Vedanta'', by Swami Tapasyananda.<br />
* A second set of six characteristics are <br />
**''Jnana'' ([[Omniscience]]),<br />
**''Vairagya'' ([[Detachment]]),<br />
**''Yasas'' ([[Fame]]),<br />
**''Aisvarya'' ([[Sovereign]]ty),<br />
**''Sri'' ([[Glory]]) and<br />
**''Dharma'' ([[Righteousness]]). <br />
<br />
*Other important qualities attributed to God are ''Gambhirya'' (grandeur), ''Audarya'' (generosity), and ''Karunya'' (compassion).<br />
* Chanted prayers, or [[mantra]]s, are central to Hindu worship. Among the most chanted mantras in Hinduism are the [[Vishnu sahasranama]] (a prayer to [[Vishnu]] that dates from the time of the [[Mahabharata]] and describes him as the ''Universal [[Brahman]]''), [[Shri Rudram]] (a Vedic hymn to Rudra, an earlier aspect of Shiva that also describes Him as Brahman) and the [[Gayatri]] mantra, (another Vedic hymn that initially was meant as a prayer to the Sun, an aspect of Brahman but has other interpretations. It is now interpreted as a prayer to the impersonal absolute Brahman). Another famous hymn, [[Lalitha Sahasranama]], describes the 1000 names of [[Devi]], worshipped as God the Divine Mother, or God's [[Shakti]] or Power personified by Hindus.<br />
<br />
* It is important to add that in Hinduism (''Sanatan Dharam'') God is considered the Supreme Being, and many views of God range from panentheism to dualism. His appearance, in its entirety, cannot be comprehended by the common man. His appearance with form is only a manifestation of certain characteristics. <br />
<br />
In Hinduism there are two methods of worship:<br />
#To worship God through meditation on an icon ([[murti]]).<br />
#To worship God without icon worship.<br />
<br />
=== The Ultimate ===<br />
Arguably, Eastern conceptions of [[The Ultimate]] (this, too, has many different names) are not conceptions of a ''personal'' divinity, though certain Western conceptions of what is at least ''called'' "God" (e.g., [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza's]] pantheistic conception and various kinds of [[mysticism]]) resemble Eastern conceptions of The Ultimate.<br />
<br />
=== Aristotelian definition of God ===<br />
''Main article: [[Aristotelian view of God]].''<br />
<br />
In his [[Metaphysics]], [[Aristotle]] discusses the meaning of "being as being". Aristotle holds that "being" primarily refers to the [[Unmoved Mover]]s, and assigned one of these to each movement in the heavens. Each Unmoved Mover continuously contemplates its own contemplation, and everything that fits the second meaning of "being" by having its source of motion in itself, moves because the knowledge of its Mover causes it to emulate this Mover (or should).<br />
<br />
=== Modern views ===<br />
====Mathematical definitions====<br />
* The mathematician [[Georg Cantor]] identified God with the mathematical concept of the [[Absolute Infinite]].<br />
* [[Kurt Gödel]]'s "[[Gödel's ontological proof|ontological proof]]" is a mathematical formulation of [[Saint Anselm]]'s [[ontological argument]].<br />
<br />
==== Process philosophy and Open Theism definition of God ====<br />
* [[Process theology]] is a school of thought influenced by the metaphysical [[process philosophy]] of [[Alfred North Whitehead]] ([[1861]]&ndash;[[1947]]). <br />
* [[Open theism]], a theological movement that began in the 1990s, is similar, but not identical, to Process theology.<br />
<br />
In both views, God is not omnipotent in the classical sense of a coercive being. Reality is not made up of material substances that endure through time, but serially-ordered events, which are experiential in nature. The universe is characterized by process and change carried out by the agents of free will. Self-determination characterizes everything in the universe, not just human beings. God and creatures co-create. God cannot force anything to happen, but rather only influence the exercise of this universal free will by offering possibilities. See the entries on [[Process theology]], [[Panentheism]], and [[Open theism]].<br />
<br />
====Posthuman God====<br />
Similar to this theory is the belief or aspiration that humans will create a God entity, emerging from an [[artificial intelligence]].<br />
[[Arthur C. Clarke]], a science fiction writer, said in an interview that: <br />
''It may be that our role on this planet is not to worship God, but to create him.'' This idea is expounded upon in his short story, [[The Final Query]]<br />
<br />
Another variant on this hypothesis is that humanity or a segment of humanity will create or [[evolution|evolve]] into a [[posthuman]] God by itself; for some examples, see [[cosmotheism]], [[transhumanism]], [[technological singularity]].<br />
<br />
====Extraterrestrials====<br />
Some comparatively new belief systems and books portray God as [[Extraterrestrial life]]. Many of these theories hold that intelligent beings from another world have been visiting Earth for many thousands of years, and have influenced the development of our religions. Some of these books posit that prophets or [[messiah]]s were sent to the human race in order to teach [[morality]] and encourage the development of [[civilization]]. (See e.g. [[Rael]]).<br />
<br />
====Phenomenological definition====<br />
The philosopher [[Michel Henry]] defines God in a phenomenological point of view. He says : « God is Life, he is the essence of [[Philosophy of the life|Life]], or, if we prefere, the essence of Life is God. Saying this we already know what is God, we know it not by the effect of a learning or of some knowledge, we don&#8217;t know it by the thought, on the background of the truth of the world ; we know it and we can know it only in and by the Life itself. We can know it only in God. » (''That&#8217;s me the Truth. Toward a philosophy of Christianity'').<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
* [[Karen Armstrong]], <cite>A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam</cite>, Ballantine Books, 1994 <br />
* [[Jack Miles]], <cite>God : A Biography</cite>, Knopf, 1995. [http://www.jackmiles.com/default.asp?ID=15]<br />
* [[Cliff Pickover]], <cite>The Paradox of God and the Science of Omniscience</cite>, Palgrave/St Martin's Press, 2001.<br />
<br />
==See also== <br />
* [[Atheism]]<br />
* [[Agnosticism]]<br />
* [[Arguments for the existence of God]]<br />
* [[Arguments against the existence of God]]<br />
* [[God and gender]]<br />
* [[God complex]]<br />
* [[God in Buddhism]]<br />
* [[God realm]]<br />
* [[List of appearances of God in fiction]]<br />
* [[Natural theology]] <br />
* [[Higgs boson|The Higgs boson, ''the God particle'']]<br />
* [[Transtheism]]<br />
<br />
== External links==<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
*Draye, Hani (2004). [http://sultan.org/articles/god.html Concept of God in Islam]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*HaTorah, Yeshivat Aish (2003). [http://www.aish.com/literacy/concepts/Understanding_God.asp Jewish Literacy]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Nicholls, David (2004). [http://web.archive.org/web/20041013082021/http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/doesgodexist.htm DOES GOD EXIST?]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*shaivam.org (2004). [http://www.shaivam.org/hipgodco.htm Hindu Concept of God]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Shlect, Joel (2004). [http://www.freewebs.com/thegodparticle/ The God Particle]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2004). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-arguments-god/ Moral Arguments for the Existence of God]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2005). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/god-necessary-being/ God and Other Necessary Beings]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Students of Shari'ah (2005). [http://www.studentsofshariah.com/proof_of_creator.php Proof Of Creator]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*The Freethought Zone (2000). [http://freethought.freeservers.com/reason/rationalview.html Arguments for Atheism]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
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[[Category:Bahá'í]]<br />
[[Category:Christianity]]<br />
[[Category:Deities]] <br />
[[Category:Islam]] <br />
[[Category:Judaism]] <br />
[[Category:Singular God]]<br />
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[[fr:Dieu]]<br />
[[he:&#1488;&#1500;&#1493;&#1492;&#1497;&#1501;]]<br />
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[[zh:&#31070;]]</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=God&diff=4852God2005-07-09T08:04:32Z<p>Jachin: God Article Creation</p>
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<div>{{dablink|This article focuses on the monotheistic concept of a singular '''God'''. See [[deity]], [[gods]] or [[goddess]]es for details on [[polytheistic]] entities. See also [[GOD]].}}<br />
<br />
The term '''God''' is used to designate a '''Supreme Being'''; however, there are other definitions of God. For example:<br />
<br />
*Many religious and philosophic systems consider a God to be the [[Creator God|creator]] of the [[omniverse]]. <br />
*Some traditions hold that the creator of the omniverse is also the sustainer of the omniverse (as in [[theism]]), while others argue that their God is no longer involved in the world after creation (as in [[deism]]).<br />
*The common definition of a God assumes [[omnipotence]], [[omniscience]] and [[benevolence]]. However, not all systems hold that a God is necessarily [[morality|morally]] good (see [[summum bonum]]). Others maintain that a God is beyond the limited human understanding of morality. [[Negative theology]] argues that no true statements about attributes of a God can be made at all, while [[agnostic]] positions argue that limited human understanding does not allow for any conclusive opinions on God whatsoever. Some mystical traditions ascribe limits to a God's powers, arguing that a God's supreme nature leaves no room for spontaneity.<br />
*The concept of a singular God is characteristic of [[monotheism]], but there is no universal definition of monotheism. The differences between monotheism and [[polytheism]] vary among traditions (see also [[trinity]], [[dualism]], and [[henotheism]]).<br />
*Some concepts of a God may include [[anthropomorphic]] attributes, [[God and gender|gender]], particular [[Names of God|names]], and ethnic exclusivity (see [[Chosen people]]), while others are purely transcendent or philosophic concepts.<br />
* Some concepts of a God centre on a view of said God as ultimate, immanent, transcendent, eternal Reality beyond the shifting and constantly mutable multiplicities of the sensible world. <br />
*The concept of God is often connected to principles of [[absolute morality]] or truth. <br />
*There are variations on defining a God either as a person, or not as a person but as an ambiguous impersonal force (see [[Absolute Infinite]]). Also at stake are questions concerning the possibilities of human/God relations. There are countless variations in traditions of worship and/or appeasement of a God.<br />
*Some espouse an exclusionist view, holding to one sole definition of a God. Others hold an inclusionist view, accepting the possibility of more than one definition of God to be true at the same time. <br />
*There are also [[atheism|atheistic]] explanations for the concept of a God that can include psychological and/or sociological factors.<br />
<br />
== Etymology ==<br />
[[Image:Gudis Argenteus.jpg|thumb|140px|Earliest attestation of the Germanic word in the [[6th century]] [[Codex Argenteus]] ([[Gospel of Matthew|Mt]] 5:9)]]<br />
The word ''God'' continues [[Old English]]/[[Germanic languages|Germanic]] ''god'' (''gu&thorn;, gudis'' in [[Gothic]], ''Gott'' in modern [[German language|German]]). The original meaning and [[etymology]] of the Germanic word ''god'' has been hotly disputed, though most agree to a reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European]] form ''*&#501;hutóm'', which is a passive perfect participle from the root ''*&#501;hu-'', which likely meant "[[libation]]", "[[sacrifice]]". Compare:-<br />
* [[Vedic]] [[Sanskrit]] ''hu-'' = "to sacrifice".<br />
* [[Greek language|Greek]] ''khu-'', ''kheu-'' = "to pour".<br />
* Common [[Germanic]] strong verb ''geutan'' ([[Anglo-Saxon]] ''g&#275;otan'') = "to pour", English ''[[ingot|in-got]]''.<br />
<br />
The connection between these meanings is likely via the meaning "pour a [[libation]]". Another possible meaning of ''*&#501;hutóm'' is "invocation", related to [[Sanskrit]] ''h&#363;ta''.<br />
<br />
The word ''God'' was used to represent [[Greek language|Greek]] ''theos'', [[Latin]] ''deus'' in [[Bible]] translations, first in the Gothic translation of the [[New Testament]] by [[Ulfilas]].<br />
<br />
Philologically, Gk. ''theos'' is said to be akin to Zeus, the chief god in Greek mythology, who has ''Dios'' in a genitive form. L. ''Diespiter'' means Jupiter, chief god in L. mythology, dies + pater, day + father. In Skr. ''deva'' is a god, as derived from the root ''div'', heaven, and ''diu'' denoting day, shine and brightness (L. ''niter''). See [[Sky Father]], and [[Dyeus]].<br />
<br />
===Capitalisation===<br />
[[Image:KJV_Psalm_23_1_2.jpg|thumb|200px|[[KJV]] of [[1611]] ([[Psalms]] 23:1,2): Occurrence of "<font style="font-variant:small-caps">Lord</font>" (and "God" in the heading)]]<br />
The development of English orthography was dominated by [[Christianity|Christian]] texts. Capitalised "God" was first used to refer to the Judeo-Christian concept, and may now signify any monotheistic conception of God, including the translations of the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''[[Allah]]'' and the African [[Masai]] ''[[Engai]]''.<br />
<br />
In early English bibles, the [[Tetragrammaton]] was rendered in capitals: "IEHOUAH" in [[William Tyndale]]'s version of [[1525]]. The [[KJV|King James Version]] of [[1611]] renders<br />
*''[[YHWH]]'' as "The <font style="font-variant:small-caps">Lord</font>"<br />
*''[[Elohim]]'' as "God"<br />
*''Adonay YHWH'' and ''Adonay Elohim'' as "<font style="font-variant:small-caps">Lord</font> God"<br />
*''kurios ho theos'' as "<font style="font-variant:small-caps">Lord</font> God" (in the [[New Testament]])<br />
<br />
The use of capitalisation, as for a proper noun, has persisted to disambiguate the concept of a singular ''God'' from [[pagan]] deities for which lowercase ''god'' has continued to be applied, mirroring the use of Latin ''deus''. Pronouns referring to God are also often capitalised and are traditionally in the masculine [[gender (grammar)|gender]], i.e. "He", "His" etc.<br />
<br />
==Names of Gods==<br />
{{Main|Names of God}}<br />
<br />
The generic term ''God'' is the proper English name used for the deity of [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] faiths. Different names for God exist within different religious traditions. <br />
<br />
*[[Allah]]&mdash;[[Islam]]/[[Arabic language|Arabic]]. See also the [[Ninety-nine names of Allah]]<br />
*[[Jehovah]], [[Yahweh]] (based on the Hebrew name ''YHVH'' (&#1497;&#1492;&#1493;&#1492;), I am, and [[Elohim]] are some of the names used for God in the Christian [[Bible]]<br />
*See [[The name of God in Judaism]] for Jewish names of God. (Note: when written or typed as a proper noun, some observant Jews will use the form "G-d" to prevent the written name of God from becoming desecrated later on. Some Orthodox Jews consider this unnecessary because English is not the Holy Language.)<br />
*The [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]] (meaning the Father, the Son ([[Jesus]] [[Christ]]), and the [[Holy Spirit]]/"[[Holy Ghost]]") - A name used primarily in [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox]] prayers and liturgy. <br />
*Most [[Hindu]]s worship the personal form of God or [[Saguna Brahman]], or [[Hindu trinity]], as [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]], or directly as [[Brahman]] through the [[Gayatri mantra]]. A common prayer for Hindus is the [[Vishnu sahasranama]], which is a hymn describing the one thousand names of God. See <br />
*[[Sikhs]] worship God with the name [[Waheguru]].<br />
*[[Jah]] is the name of God in the [[Rastafari movement]].<br />
*God is called ''Xavier'' in the [[Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox]] Church.<br />
*Some churches ([[United Church of Canada]], [[Religious Science]]) are using "the One" alongside "God" as a more gender-neutral way of referring to God (See also [[Oneness]]).<br />
*The [[Maasai]] name for "God" is [[Ngai]], which occurs in the [[volcano]] name [[Ol Doinyo Lengai]] ("the mountain of God").<br />
<br />
==History of monotheism==<br />
''See also [[monotheism]].''<br />
<br />
The religions widely thought of as monotheistic today are of relatively recent origin historically, although Eastern religions (notably religions of [[China]] and [[India]]) that have concepts of [[panentheism]] are difficult to classify along [[Western world|Western]] notions of monotheism vs. polytheism, and sometimes have claims of being very ancient, if not eternal.<br />
<br />
In the [[Ancient Orient]], many cities had their own local god, but this [[henotheistic]] worship of a single god did not imply denial of the existence of other gods. The [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] [[Ark of the Covenant]] adapted this practice to a [[nomad]]ic lifestyle, paving their way for a singular God. The cult of the solar god [[Aten]] is often cited as the earliest known example of monotheism, but even if [[Akhetaten]]'s [[Great Hymn to the Aten|hymn to Aten]] praises this god as omnipotent creator, worship of other gods beside him never ceased. Early examples of monotheism also include two late [[rigveda|rigvedic]] hymns (10.129,130) to a [[Panentheistic]] [[creator god]], [[Shri Rudram]], a [[Vedic]] hymn to [[Rudra]], an earlier aspect of [[Shiva]], which expressed [[monistic theism]], and is still chanted today, the [[Zoroastrian]] [[Ahuramazda]] and [[China|Chinese]] [[Shang Ti]]. The worship of polytheistic gods, on the other hand, is seen by many to predate monotheism, reaching back as far as the [[paleolithic]]. Today, monotheistic religions are dominant, but other systems of belief still exist.<br />
<br />
==The existence of God ==<br />
While belief in God can be considered solely a matter of faith ([[Fideism]]), there are also many intellectual [[arguments for the existence of God|arguments for]] as well as [[arguments against the existence of God|arguments against]] the existence of God.<br />
<br />
==Theology==<br />
[[Theology]] is the study of religious beliefs. Theologians attempt to explicate (and in some cases systematize) beliefs; some express their own experience of the divine. Theologians ask questions such as: What is the nature of God? What does it mean for God to be singular? If people believe in God as a duality or trinity, what do these terms signify? Is God [[transcendent]], [[immanent]], or some mix of the two? What is the relationship between God and the universe, and God and mankind?<br />
<br />
* [[Theism]] holds that God is both [[transcendent]] and [[immanent]]; thus, God is simultaneously infinite and in some way present in the affairs of the world. Catholic theology holds that God is [[divine simplicity|infinitely simple]] and is [[eternity|outside of time]]. Most theists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, although this belief raises questions about God's responsibility for evil and suffering in the world. Some theists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence, omniscience, or benevolence. [[Open Theism]], by contrast, asserts that God has limits. "Theism" is sometimes used to refer in general to any belief in a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.<br />
* [[Deism]] holds that God is wholly transcendent: God exists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what was necessary for God to create it. In this view, God is not [[anthropomorphic]], and does not literally answer prayers or cause [[miracle]]s to occur.<br />
* [[Monotheism]] holds that there is only one God, and/or that the one true God is worshipped in different religions under different names. It is important to note, however, that monotheists of one religion can, and often do, consider the monotheistic god of a different religion to be a false god. For instance, many Christian fundamentalists consider the God of Islam ([[Allah]]) to be a false god or [[demon]] (although theologians and linguists argue that "Allah" is merely the Arabic word for "God," and not the literal name of a specifically Muslim god). Many Jews consider the [[messiah]] of Christianity ([[Jesus]]) to be a false god and some monotheists (notably fundamentalist Christians) hold that there is one [[triune]] God, and that all gods of other religions are actually demons in disguise (as in [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_2_Corinthians#Chapter_11 2nd Corinthians 11] verse 14). Eastern religious believers and [[Liberal Christian]]s are more likely to assume those of other faiths worship the same God as they.<br />
* [[Pantheism]] holds that God is the universe and the universe is God. [[Panentheism]] holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe. The distinctions between the two are subtle, and many consider them unhelpful. [[Kabbalah]], Jewish mysticism, paints a [[pantheistic]]/[[panentheism|panentheistic]] view of God, which has wide acceptance in [[Hasidic Judaism]], particularly from their founder [[Israel ben Eliezer|The Baal Shem Tov]]. It is also the view of the [[Liberal Catholic Church]], [[Theosophy]], [[Hinduism]], some divisions of [[Buddhism]], and [[Taoism]], along with many varying denominations and individuals within denominations. <br />
* [[Dystheism]] is a form of theism which holds that God is malevolent as a consequence of the [[problem of evil]]. Dystheistic speculation is common in theology, but there is no known church of practicing dystheists. See also [[Satanism]].<br />
<br />
Most believers allow for the existence of other, less powerful spiritual beings, and give them names such as [[angel]]s, [[saint]]s, [[Djinn]], [[demon]]s, and [[devas]].<br />
<br />
==Conceptions of God==<br />
===Jewish, Christian and Muslim conceptions===<br />
[[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] see God as a being who created the world and rules over the universe. God is usually held to have the properties of [[holiness]] (separate from sin and incorruptible), [[Justice|justness]] (fair, right, and true in all His judgements), [[sovereignty]] (unthwartable in His will), [[omnipotence]] (all-powerful), [[omniscience]] (all-knowing), [[omnibenevolence]] (all-loving), and [[omnipresence]] (everywhere-present).<br />
<br />
Jews, Christians and Muslims often conceive of God as a [[personal God]], with a will and personality. However, many medieval [[rationalist]] philosophers of these religions felt that one should not view God as personal, and that such personal descriptions of God are only meant as [[metaphor]]s. Some within these three faiths still accept these views as valid, although many of the [[laity]] today do not have a wide awareness of them.<br />
<br />
In [[Eastern Christianity]], it remains essential that God be personal; hence it speaks of the three ''persons'' of the [[Trinity]]. It also emphasizes that God has a will, and that God the Son has two wills, divine and human, though these are never in conflict. The personhood of God and of all human people is essential to the concept of [[theosis]] or deification.<br />
<br />
==== Biblical definition of God====<br />
[[Image:God2-Sistine_Chapel.png|thumb|300px|[[16th century]] Christian view of [[Genesis]]: God creates [[Adam]] ([[Michelangelo]], [[Sistine Chapel]])]]<br />
The [[Hebrew Bible]] ([[Old Testament]]) characterizes God by these attributes: "The LORD, the LORD God, merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness, keeping steadfast love for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin, but who will by no means clear the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children and the children's children, to the third and the fourth generation." (Exodus 34:6&ndash;7)<br />
<br />
The [[Hebrew Bible]] contains no systematic theology: No attempt is made to give a [[Philosophy|philosophical]] or rigorous definition of God, nor of how God acts in the world. It does not explicitly describe God's nature, exemplified by God's assertion in [[Exodus]] that "you cannot see my face; for man shall not see me and live". Nowhere in the Hebrew Bible are the words [[omnipotence|omnipotent]], [[omniscience|omniscient]], or [[omnibenevolence|omnibenevolent]] used to define God in a systematic sense.<br />
<br />
Although Scripture does not describe God systematically, however, it does provide a poetic depiction of God and His relationship with people. According to the biblical historian [[Yehezkal Kaufmann]], the essential innovation of Biblical theology was to posit a God that cares about people, and that cares about whether people care about Him. Most people believe that the Bible should be viewed as humanity's view of God, but theologian [[Abraham Joshua Heschel]] described the Biblical God as "anthropopathic", which means that one should read the Bible as God's view of humanity, and not as humanity's view of God.<br />
<br />
Similarly, the [[New Testament]] contains no systematic theology: no attempt is made to give a philosophical or rigorous definition of God, nor of how God acts in the world. The New Testament does, however, provide an implicit theology as it teaches that God became human while remaining fully God, in the person of [[Jesus]], and that he subsequently sent the [[Holy Spirit]]. In this view, God becomes someone that can be seen and touched, and may speak and act in a manner easily perceived by humans, while also remaining transcendent and invisible. This appears to be a radical departure from the concepts of God found in Hebrew Bible. The New Testament's statements regarding the nature of God were eventually developed into the doctrine of the [[Trinity]].<br />
<br />
==== Kabbalistic definition of God ====<br />
[[Kabbalah]] ([[Judaism|Jewish]] [[mysticism]]) teaches that God is neither [[matter]] nor [[spirit]]. Rather God is the creator of both, but is himself neither. But if God is so different from his creation, how can there be any interaction between the Creator and the created? This question prompted Kabbalists to envision two aspects of God, (a) God himself, who in the end is unknowable, and (b) the revealed aspect of God who created the universe, preserves the universe, and interacts with mankind in a personal way. Kabbalists believe that these two aspects are not contradictory but complement one another.<br />
<br />
====Quranic definitions of God, i.e. ''Allah''====<br />
''Main article'': [[Allah]]<br />
<br />
''Allah'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''all&#x101;hu'' &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1607;) is traditionally used by [[Muslim]]s as the Arabic word for "[[God]]" (not "God's personal [[name]]", but the equivalent of the Hebrew word [[El]] as opposed to [[YHWH]]). The word ''Allah'' is not specific to [[Islam]]; [[Arab Christians]] and [[Mizrahi Jew|Arab Jews]] also use it to refer to the [[monotheist]] [[deity]]. Arabic translations of the [[Bible]] also employ it, as do the [[Catholics]] of [[Malta]] who pronounce it as "Alla" in [[Maltese language|Maltese]], a language derived from and most closely related to Arabic, as well as [[Christians]] in [[Indonesia]], who pronounce it "Allah Bapa" (Allah the Father).<br />
<br />
Many [[Linguistics|linguists]] believe that the term ''All&#257;h'' is derived from a contraction of the Arabic words ''al'' (the) + ''ilah'' (male deity). In addition, one of the main pagan goddesses of pre-Islamic Arabia, [[Allat|All&#257;t]] (''al'' + ''il&#257;h'' + ''at'', or 'the female deity'), is cited as being [[Etymology|etymologically]] (though not synchronically) the feminine linguistic counterpart to the grammatically masculine Allah. If so, the word ''All&#257;h'' is an abbreviated title, meaning 'the deity', rather than a name. For this reason, both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars often translate All&#257;h directly into English as 'God' especially the [[Quran Alone]] Muslims; however, some Muslim scholars feel that "All&#257;h" should not be translated, because it expresses the uniqueness of God more accurately than "God", which can take a plural "Gods", whereas "All&#257;h" has no plural. This is a significant issue in [[translation of the Qur'an]]. This also explains why Arabic-speaking Jews and Christians freely refer to God as All&#257;h.<br />
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Most of the 99 names of God found in the Qur'an are not actually names, but attributes. One, however, Al Haq, meaning The Truth, seems to equate to absolute truth as that which cannot be negated. Al Haq is more than a reflection of faith in the existence of The God, and links the concept of God to all creation forever. Thus Allah transcends the prophetic origins of Islam and is thus universal in all time and applies to all existence -- past, present, and future.<br />
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====Negative theology====<br />
''Main article: [[Negative theology]].''<br />
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Some Jewish, Christian and Muslim [[medieval]] philosophers developed what is termed as [[negative theology]], the idea of approaching a knowledge of God through negative attributes. For example, we should not say that God exists in the usual sense of the term; all we can safely say is that God is not nonexistent. We should not say that God is wise, but we can say that God is not ignorant. We should not say that God is One, but we can state that there is [[divine simplicity|no multiplicity in God's being]].<br />
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==== God as Unity or Trinity ====<br />
[[Judaism|Jews]], [[Islam|Muslims]], and a small fraction of [[Christianity|Christians]] are ''unitarian monotheists''. The vast majority of Christians have been and still are ''Trinitarian monotheists''. <br />
* [[Unitarian]] monotheists hold that there is only one "person" (so to speak), or one basic substance, in God. Some adherents of this position consider Trinitarianism to be a form of polytheism.<br />
* Trinitarian monotheists believe in one God that exists as three distinct persons who share the same substance/essence; the Christian version of this is called the [[Trinity]], the [[Hindu]] version [[Trimurti]]. Trinitarians hold that the three persons have the same purpose, holiness, and sovereignty, and therefore each can be worshipped as God, without violating the idea that there is only one God to which worship belongs.<br />
* [[Mormon]]s believe that there are three separate divine personages. One of these personages is a spirit without a body referred to as the [[Holy Ghost]]. The other two personages are spirits with ''perfected'' or ''glorified'' (often called ''celestial'') bodies referred to as [[Heavenly Father]] (or less commonly "[[Elohim]]") and his son, Jesus Christ. Mormons hold that God is a ''Holy Man'' who advanced to his divine status through a repeatable process of progression. They believe that by following their religion's teachings, humans can literally become gods (sometimes phrased as "become like Heavenly Father") at some point after death and [[resurrection]]; this is also called [[Exaltation]].<br />
* [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarians]] believe that [[Haile Selassie]] is both God the Father and God the Son, made manifest in human flesh as the reincarnation of Jesus, while the Holy Spirit is seen to dwell within all believers (of Rastafari), and within all people (believed by some).<br />
* [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic Jews]] hold that there are ten [[Sephirah|Sefirot]] (emanations) of God. Each of these are more distinct than a characteristic, but less distinct than a separate personage.<br />
* [[Monism]] is the [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] position that all is of one essential [[essence]], [[matter|substance]] or [[energy]], that being a [[pantheist]], or [[panentheist]], [[immanent]] God. Monism can be inclusive of other interpretations of God.<br />
* [[Dualism]] is the idea of two, nearly equal divine entities, one being the good God, and the other being an evil god, or [[Satan]]. All beings are under the influence of one side, or the other, if they know it or not. [[Zoroastrianism]] is an example of dualism.<br />
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===Hindu Conceptions of God===<br />
* In [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]], [[Hindus]] believe that God, whether in the form of [[Shiva]] or [[Vishnu]] has six attributes. However, the actual number of auspicious qualities of God, are '''countless''', with the following six qualities being the ''most important''. <br />
* The number six is invariably given, but the individual attributes listed vary.<br />
* One set of attributes (and their common interpretations) are <br />
**''Jnana'' ([[Omniscience]]), defined as the power to know about all beings simultaneously;<br />
**''Aishvarya'' ([[Sovereign]]ty), which consists in unchallenged rule over all; <br />
**''Shakti'' ([[Energy]]), or power, which is the capacity to make the impossible possible;<br />
**''Bala'' ([[Strength]]), which is the capacity to support everything by will and without any fatigue; <br />
**''Virya'' ([[Vigour]]), or valour which indicates the power to retain immateriality as the supreme being in spite of being the material cause of mutable creations; and <br />
**''Tejas'' ([[Splendour]]), which expresses his self-sufficiency and the capacity to overpower everything by his spiritual effulgence.; cited from ''Bhakti Schools of Vedanta'', by Swami Tapasyananda.<br />
* A second set of six characteristics are <br />
**''Jnana'' ([[Omniscience]]),<br />
**''Vairagya'' ([[Detachment]]),<br />
**''Yasas'' ([[Fame]]),<br />
**''Aisvarya'' ([[Sovereign]]ty),<br />
**''Sri'' ([[Glory]]) and<br />
**''Dharma'' ([[Righteousness]]). <br />
<br />
*Other important qualities attributed to God are ''Gambhirya'' (grandeur), ''Audarya'' (generosity), and ''Karunya'' (compassion).<br />
* Chanted prayers, or [[mantra]]s, are central to Hindu worship. Among the most chanted mantras in Hinduism are the [[Vishnu sahasranama]] (a prayer to [[Vishnu]] that dates from the time of the [[Mahabharata]] and describes him as the ''Universal [[Brahman]]''), [[Shri Rudram]] (a Vedic hymn to Rudra, an earlier aspect of Shiva that also describes Him as Brahman) and the [[Gayatri]] mantra, (another Vedic hymn that initially was meant as a prayer to the Sun, an aspect of Brahman but has other interpretations. It is now interpreted as a prayer to the impersonal absolute Brahman). Another famous hymn, [[Lalitha Sahasranama]], describes the 1000 names of [[Devi]], worshipped as God the Divine Mother, or God's [[Shakti]] or Power personified by Hindus.<br />
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* It is important to add that in Hinduism (''Sanatan Dharam'') God is considered the Supreme Being, and many views of God range from panentheism to dualism. His appearance, in its entirety, cannot be comprehended by the common man. His appearance with form is only a manifestation of certain characteristics. <br />
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In Hinduism there are two methods of worship:<br />
#To worship God through meditation on an icon ([[murti]]).<br />
#To worship God without icon worship.<br />
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=== The Ultimate ===<br />
Arguably, Eastern conceptions of [[The Ultimate]] (this, too, has many different names) are not conceptions of a ''personal'' divinity, though certain Western conceptions of what is at least ''called'' "God" (e.g., [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza's]] pantheistic conception and various kinds of [[mysticism]]) resemble Eastern conceptions of The Ultimate.<br />
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=== Aristotelian definition of God ===<br />
''Main article: [[Aristotelian view of God]].''<br />
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In his [[Metaphysics]], [[Aristotle]] discusses the meaning of "being as being". Aristotle holds that "being" primarily refers to the [[Unmoved Mover]]s, and assigned one of these to each movement in the heavens. Each Unmoved Mover continuously contemplates its own contemplation, and everything that fits the second meaning of "being" by having its source of motion in itself, moves because the knowledge of its Mover causes it to emulate this Mover (or should).<br />
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=== Modern views ===<br />
====Mathematical definitions====<br />
* The mathematician [[Georg Cantor]] identified God with the mathematical concept of the [[Absolute Infinite]].<br />
* [[Kurt Gödel]]'s "[[Gödel's ontological proof|ontological proof]]" is a mathematical formulation of [[Saint Anselm]]'s [[ontological argument]].<br />
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==== Process philosophy and Open Theism definition of God ====<br />
* [[Process theology]] is a school of thought influenced by the metaphysical [[process philosophy]] of [[Alfred North Whitehead]] ([[1861]]&ndash;[[1947]]). <br />
* [[Open theism]], a theological movement that began in the 1990s, is similar, but not identical, to Process theology.<br />
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In both views, God is not omnipotent in the classical sense of a coercive being. Reality is not made up of material substances that endure through time, but serially-ordered events, which are experiential in nature. The universe is characterized by process and change carried out by the agents of free will. Self-determination characterizes everything in the universe, not just human beings. God and creatures co-create. God cannot force anything to happen, but rather only influence the exercise of this universal free will by offering possibilities. See the entries on [[Process theology]], [[Panentheism]], and [[Open theism]].<br />
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====Posthuman God====<br />
Similar to this theory is the belief or aspiration that humans will create a God entity, emerging from an [[artificial intelligence]].<br />
[[Arthur C. Clarke]], a science fiction writer, said in an interview that: <br />
''It may be that our role on this planet is not to worship God, but to create him.'' This idea is expounded upon in his short story, [[The Final Query]]<br />
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Another variant on this hypothesis is that humanity or a segment of humanity will create or [[evolution|evolve]] into a [[posthuman]] God by itself; for some examples, see [[cosmotheism]], [[transhumanism]], [[technological singularity]].<br />
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====Extraterrestrials====<br />
Some comparatively new belief systems and books portray God as [[Extraterrestrial life]]. Many of these theories hold that intelligent beings from another world have been visiting Earth for many thousands of years, and have influenced the development of our religions. Some of these books posit that prophets or [[messiah]]s were sent to the human race in order to teach [[morality]] and encourage the development of [[civilization]]. (See e.g. [[Rael]]).<br />
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====Phenomenological definition====<br />
The philosopher [[Michel Henry]] defines God in a phenomenological point of view. He says : « God is Life, he is the essence of [[Philosophy of the life|Life]], or, if we prefere, the essence of Life is God. Saying this we already know what is God, we know it not by the effect of a learning or of some knowledge, we don&#8217;t know it by the thought, on the background of the truth of the world ; we know it and we can know it only in and by the Life itself. We can know it only in God. » (''That&#8217;s me the Truth. Toward a philosophy of Christianity'').<br />
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== References ==<br />
* [[Karen Armstrong]], <cite>A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam</cite>, Ballantine Books, 1994 <br />
* [[Jack Miles]], <cite>God : A Biography</cite>, Knopf, 1995. [http://www.jackmiles.com/default.asp?ID=15]<br />
* [[Cliff Pickover]], <cite>The Paradox of God and the Science of Omniscience</cite>, Palgrave/St Martin's Press, 2001.<br />
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==See also== <br />
* [[Atheism]]<br />
* [[Agnosticism]]<br />
* [[Arguments for the existence of God]]<br />
* [[Arguments against the existence of God]]<br />
* [[God and gender]]<br />
* [[God complex]]<br />
* [[God in Buddhism]]<br />
* [[God realm]]<br />
* [[List of appearances of God in fiction]]<br />
* [[Natural theology]] <br />
* [[Higgs boson|The Higgs boson, ''the God particle'']]<br />
* [[Transtheism]]<br />
<br />
== External links==<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
*Draye, Hani (2004). [http://sultan.org/articles/god.html Concept of God in Islam]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*HaTorah, Yeshivat Aish (2003). [http://www.aish.com/literacy/concepts/Understanding_God.asp Jewish Literacy]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Nicholls, David (2004). [http://web.archive.org/web/20041013082021/http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/doesgodexist.htm DOES GOD EXIST?]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*shaivam.org (2004). [http://www.shaivam.org/hipgodco.htm Hindu Concept of God]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Shlect, Joel (2004). [http://www.freewebs.com/thegodparticle/ The God Particle]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2004). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-arguments-god/ Moral Arguments for the Existence of God]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2005). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/god-necessary-being/ God and Other Necessary Beings]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*Students of Shari'ah (2005). [http://www.studentsofshariah.com/proof_of_creator.php Proof Of Creator]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
*The Freethought Zone (2000). [http://freethought.freeservers.com/reason/rationalview.html Arguments for Atheism]. Retrieved June 26, 2005.<br />
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[[Category:Bahá'í]]<br />
[[Category:Christianity]]<br />
[[Category:Deities]] <br />
[[Category:Islam]] <br />
[[Category:Judaism]] <br />
[[Category:Singular God]]<br />
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[[af:God]]<br />
[[ca:Déu]]<br />
[[cs:B%C5%AFh]]<br />
[[da:Gud]]<br />
[[de:Gott]]<br />
[[eo:Dio]]<br />
[[es:Dios]]<br />
[[et:Jumal]]<br />
[[fr:Dieu]]<br />
[[he:&#1488;&#1500;&#1493;&#1492;&#1497;&#1501;]]<br />
[[hu:Isten]]<br />
[[ia:Deo]]<br />
[[ig:Chineke]]<br />
[[is:Guð]]<br />
[[it:Dio]]<br />
[[ja:&#31070;]]<br />
[[nl:God]]<br />
[[no:Gud]]<br />
[[pl:Bóg]]<br />
[[pt:Deus]]<br />
[[ru:&#1041;&#1086;&#1075;]]<br />
[[simple:God]]<br />
[[sl:bog]]<br />
[[sr:&#1041;&#1086;&#1075;]]<br />
[[sv:Gud]]<br />
[[tl:Diyos]]<br />
[[zh:&#31070;]]</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=Roman_Catholic_Church&diff=5551Roman Catholic Church2005-07-09T07:26:25Z<p>Jachin: /* Overview */</p>
<hr />
<div>The '''Roman Catholic Church''' is the largest [[religious denomination|denomination]] of [[Christianity]] with over 1.1 billion members. It claims that it is both organizationally and doctrinally the original Christian Church, founded by [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]]. It also claims unbroken [[Apostolic Succession]] from [[St. Peter]] and the other [[Apostles]]. The [[Second Vatican Council]]'s Decree on the Church ''[[Lumen Gentium]]'', 8,[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html] declared that "the sole Church of Christ which in the Creed we profess to be one, holy, catholic and [[apostolic]]" has a concrete realization (the [[Latin]] term is "subsistit") "in the Catholic Church, which is governed by the successor of Peter and by the bishops in communion with him". "Successor of Peter" refers to the [[Pope]], currently [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]].<br />
<br />
The Roman Catholic Church is also one of the largest and oldest continuously operating institutions in existence. (For history see [[History of the Roman Catholic Church]].)<br />
<br />
It is a [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] organization in which ordained [[clergy]] are divided into the [[Holy Orders|orders]] of [[bishop]]s, [[priest]]s and [[deacon]]s. The world is divided into 2755 (at the end of 2004) [[diocese]]s, sometimes called bishoprics, each with a presiding bishop, responsible for the religious welfare of the faithful in his geographical area. The diocese of [[Rome]] has always been pre-eminent in the Church, because it is the seat of the bishop, known as the [[Pope]], who is considered by Catholics to be the successor of [[Saint Peter]], the chief of the [[Apostles]].<br />
<br />
== Overview ==<br />
The Roman Catholic Church has a membership in every country in the [[World]].The Church sees itself as instituted by Jesus Christ for the salvation of [[soul]]s. It accomplishes this goal through teaching and through administration of [[sacraments]], including [[baptism]], the [[Eucharist]], and the forgiveness of sins, through which [[God]] grants [[grace]] to the believer. The teaching authority or [[magisterium]] of the Church bases its teachings on both [[Scripture]] and apostolic tradition. As well as ordained secular clergy, the Church encourages [[monasticism]], and has many orders of monks, friars and nuns who live in [[celibacy]], and devote their lives entirely to God. Other religious practices include [[fasting]], [[prayer]], [[penance]], [[pilgrimage]] and [[meditation]].<br />
<br />
According to the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], the Church's first purpose is "to be the sacrament of the inner union of men with God." Thus the Church's "structure is totally ordered to the holiness of Christ's members." (''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' 775, 773)<br />
<br />
The Roman Catholic Church draws on rites and rituals that have been said to have stemmed from archaeic High Magic, the reflection of such is quite evident to those who witness their rituals who have an occult or esoteric background of research. Whilst many practitioners will not confirm the origin of certain rites, it is evident that there is a strong fusion between middle eastern mystery cults and northern european paganism in them.<br />
<br />
== Terminology ==<br />
<br />
Since the term "Catholic Church" has multiple meanings (see [[Catholicism]]), this article uses the term "Roman Catholic Church", to avoid confusion. The relationship between the [[Latin Rite|Western or Latin]] and the Eastern Churches within the Roman Catholic Church is dealt with below.<br />
<br />
The choice of the phrase "Roman Catholic Church" should not be interpreted as opposition to the use, for this Church, of the simpler term "Catholic Church", which its members prefer. Indeed, the following extract from what St Augustine (AD [[354]]-[[430]]) wrote in AD [[397]] still holds, in the twenty-first century, for the actual practice, as distinct from the theoretical position, of those who take a divergent stance on the importance of the link with the "seat of the Apostle Peter": when speaking formally, they may say "Roman Catholic Church" or employ a similar limiting phrase, but in ordinary everyday conversation they accept and may even themselves use the term "Catholic Church". (Note that in Augustine&#8217;s time Christians applied the word "priest" to bishops, but not to the lower rank of clergy that are today called "priests" in English.)<br />
<br />
:''In the Catholic Church ... there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the [[Apostle]] [[Peter]], to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15-19), down to the present episcopate. And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house.'' <br />
: &mdash; <i>Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental</i>, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith[http://www.ccel.org/pager.cgi?&file=fathers/NPNF1-04/augustine/bk_fundamental/bk1.html&from=CHAP4&up=]<br />
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== Liturgy ==<br />
The centre of the Roman Catholic Church's life is the [[liturgy|liturgical]] service of the [[Eucharist]] or Mass. On each Sunday and [[Holy Day of Obligation]] or on the evening before, Catholics have an obligation to participate in this celebration. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that the Mass is the un-bloody renewal of the Sacrifice of Calvary upon the altar, and the most perfect way to fulfill man's "four-fold duties" to God: adoration, thanksgiving, satisfaction for sins, and petition. For further information, see the article [[Mass (liturgy)]] and the references in that article.<br />
<br />
Another especially important part of the Church's continual prayer is the [[Liturgy of the Hours]], whose particular characteristic is to consecrate the course of day and night. Lauds and [[Vespers]] (morning and evening prayer) are the principal hours. To these are added one or three intermediate prayer periods (traditionally called Terce, Sext and None), another prayer period to end the day ([[Compline]]), and a special period at no fixed time devoted chiefly to readings from the [[Bible|Scriptures]] and ecclesiastical writers. The prayers consist principally of the Psalter or [[Book of Psalms]]. Like the Mass, the Liturgy of the Hours has inspired great musical compositions. Earlier names for the Liturgy of the Hours were the Divine Office (a name still used as the title of one English translation), the Book of Hours, and the [[Breviary]]. All priests and religious leaders are obligated to pray the Liturgy of the Hours daily.<br />
<br />
==Sacraments==<br />
<br />
The Roman Catholic Church recognizes and administers seven [[Sacrament|sacraments]], which are considered gifts of Christ through the Church which give [[Divine grace]] to those who receive them. All grace comes from the [[Passion]] and [[Resurrection]] of Jesus, thus the sacraments are vehicles or channels of grace. The sacraments are listed here with reference to the section of the Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) that deals with each. <br />
* [[Baptism]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3G.HTM CCC 1213-1284]<br />
* [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3P.HTM CCC1285-1321]<br />
* [[Eucharist]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3W.HTM CCC 1322-1419]<br />
* [[Confession|Reconciliation and Penance (Confession)]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P46.HTM CCC 1422-1498]<br />
* [[Anointing of the Sick]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P4J.HTM CCC 1499-1532] <br />
* [[Holy Orders]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P4R.HTM CCC 1536-1600]<br />
* [[Holy Matrimony|Matrimony]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P50.HTM CCC 1601-1666]<br />
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== Doctrine ==<br />
In Roman Catholic theology, the Deposit of the Faith (all the dogmas and beliefs of the Church) comes from two sources: the [[Bible]] and Sacred Tradition. Roman Catholics believe that Jesus Christ transmitted the entire Catholic Faith to the apostles; a portion of this Faith was written down and is found in the Bible, and the other portion was orally handed down through the centuries. The Bible is the normal rule of faith ([[norma scriptura]]) and no Catholic belief or practice can contradict it. <br />
<br />
The Roman Catholic Church attributes very high authority to 21 [[Ecumenical Councils]]: Nicaea I (325), Constantinople I (381), Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451), Constantinople II (553), Constantinople III (680-681), Nicaea II (787), Constantinople IV (869-870), Lateran I (1123), Lateran II (1139), Lateran III (1179), Lateran IV (1215), Lyons I (1245), Lyons II (1274), Vienne (1311-1312), Constance (1414-1418), Florence (1438-1445), Lateran V (1512-1517), Trent (1545-1563), Vatican I (1869-1870), Vatican II (1962-1965).<br />
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Of these, the Orthodox Churches of Byzantine tradition accept only the first seven, the family of "non-Chalcedonian" or "pre-Chalcedonian" Churches only the first three, and the Christians of Nestorian tradition only the first two.<br />
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Dialogue has shown that even where the break with one of these ancient Churches occurred as far back as the Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451), long before the break with Constantinople (1054), the few doctrinal differences often concern terminology, not substance.<br />
<br />
Emblematic is the "Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East" [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/documents/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_11111994_assyrian-church_en.html] (note the use in an inter-Church document of "Catholic Church" rather than "Roman Catholic Church"), signed by "His Holiness John Paul II, Bishop of Rome and Pope of the Catholic Church, and His Holiness Mar Dinkha IV, Catholicos-Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East", on 11 November 1994. The division between the two Churches in question goes back to the disputes over the legitimacy of the expression "Mother of God" (as well as "Mother of Christ") for the [[Virgin Mary]] that came to a head at the Council of Ephesus in 431. The Common Declaration recalls that the Assyrian Church of the East prays the Virgin Mary as "the Mother of Christ our God and Saviour", and the Catholic tradition addresses the Virgin Mary as "the Mother of God" and also as "the Mother of Christ", fuller expressions by which each Church clearly acknowledges both the divinity and the humanity of Mary's son. The co-signers of the Common Declaration could thus state: "We both recognize the legitimacy and rightness of these expressions of the same faith and we both respect the preference of each Church in her liturgical life and piety."<br />
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Some, at least, of the most difficult questions in relations with the ancient Eastern Churches concern not so much doctrine as practical matters such as the concrete exercise of the claim to papal primacy and how to ensure that ecclesial union would not mean mere absorption of the smaller Churches by the Latin component of the much larger Roman Catholic Church (the most numerous single religious denomination in the world), and the stifling or abandonment of their own rich theological, liturgical and cultural heritage.<br />
<br />
There are much greater differences with the doctrinal views of [[Protestantism|Protestants]], whom Roman Catholics feel have broken continuity with the past, and the true teachings of the [[apostles]], for the sake of what Protestants believe to be the true teaching of the [[apostles]]. But even with these groups, dialogue has on both sides clarified some misunderstandings of what the other believes.<br />
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===Magisterium===<br />
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The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], 85 states that authentic interpretation of the word of God is entrusted to the living Magisterium of the Church, namely the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter. Roman Catholic theology places the authoritative interpretation of scripture in the hands of the corporate judgment of the Church rather than the private judgment of the individual. <br />
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=== Social teaching === <br />
{{main|Catholic social teaching}}<br />
<br />
The Church holds that the teachings of [[Jesus]] call on its members to act in a particular way in their dealings with the rest of humanity. While not endorsing any particular political agenda, the Church holds that this teaching applies in the public (political) realm, not only the private. Among these teachings, as they have been elaborated in recent decades by Catholic thinkers, Bishops' statements and Papal [[encyclical]]s, are that every person has a [[right to life]] and to a decent minimum standards of living, that humanity's use of God's creation implies a responsibility to protect the environment, and that the range of circumstances under which military force is permissible is extremely limited.<br />
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== Particular Churches within the single Roman Catholic Church ==<br />
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Unlike "families" or "communions" of Churches that see themselves as distinct Churches, the Church of those who are in full communion with the Pope considers itself a single Church, not a federation of Churches. It has authoritatively expressed this self-understanding in, for instance, the 28 May 1992 ''Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on some aspects of the Church understood as communion'', 9.[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_28051992_communionis-notio_en.html]<br />
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Accordingly, it has never adopted the usage of those who apply the term "Roman Catholic" to the Latin or Western Church alone, to the exclusion of the Eastern Churches that also are in full communion with the Bishop of Rome. When it employs the term "Roman Catholic Church", which it rarely does except in its relations with other Churches, it means the whole Church "governed by the successor of Peter and by the bishops in communion with him", wherever they live and whether they are of Eastern or Western tradition, since this Church has Rome as its centre. The only other meaning it would give to "Roman Catholic" is "a Catholic who lives in Rome", as a Catholic who lives in Warsaw could be called a Warsaw Catholic.<br />
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On the other hand, the Roman Catholic Church attaches great importance to the [[particular Church]]es within it, whose theological significance the Second Vatican Council highlighted. Two categories of particular Churches are distinguished.<br />
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=== Particular Churches or rites ===<br />
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The higher level of particular Churches is that of what the Second Vatican Council&#8217;s Decree on the Catholic Eastern Churches ''Orientalium Ecclesiarum'', 2[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19641121_orientalium-ecclesiarum_en.html] calls "particular Churches or rites". The long-established use of the term "rite" for these particular Churches is due to the central place that the Eucharist holds in the Roman Catholic Church, making each particular Church's liturgy its most noted distinguishing mark.<br />
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However, the word "rite" is used not only of particular Churches but also of liturgical rites. Examples are the [[Ambrosian rite]], the [[Mozarabic rite]] and the Roman rite, different liturgical rites used within the one Latin particular Church or Latin rite (singular). And terms such as "Byzantine rite" may refer to a liturgical rite used by more than one particular Church. To avoid the ambiguity to be found in the terms "particular Church" and "rite", the [[1983]] ''Code of Canon Law'' adopted instead the term "autonomous ritual Church" (in Latin, "Ecclesia ritualis sui iuris") for the same reality; and the [[1990]] ''Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches'' shortened this to "autonomous Church" (in Latin, "Ecclesia sui iuris").<br />
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The autonomy of each such Church, Eastern or Western, shows in its distinctive liturgy, canon law, theological tradition etc. The Latin or Western particular Church is governed by the ''Code of Canon Law'', while the ''Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches'' outlines the discipline that the Eastern particular Churches have in common.<br />
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The official yearly Vatican directory, ''Annuario Pontificio'' (Libreria Editrice Vaticana), gives the following list of rites (in the sense of particular Churches) within the Roman Catholic Church:<br />
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:A. Eastern rites of Alexandrian tradition: [[Coptic Catholic Church|Coptic]], Ethiopic (2).<br />
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:B. Eastern rites of Antiochian tradition: [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church|Malankara]], [[Maronite|Maronite]], [[Syrian Catholic Church|Syrian]] (3).<br />
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:C. Eastern rite of Armenian tradition: [[Armenian Catholic Church|Armenian Church]] (1).<br />
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:D. Eastern rites of Chaldaean or East-Syrian tradition: [[Chaldean]], [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church|Malabar]] (2).<br />
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:E. Eastern rites of Constantinopolitan or Byzantine tradition: [[Albanian Catholic Church|Albanian]], [[Belarusian Catholic Church|Belarusian]], Bulgarian, Greek, Greek-Melkite, Hungarian, Italo-Albanian, [[Romanian_Catholic_Church|Romanian]], Russian, [[Ruthenian Catholic Church|Ruthenian]], Slovak, [[Ukrainian_Greek_Catholic_Church|Ukrainian]] (12).<br />
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:F. [[Latin rite]] (1).<br />
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=== Particular or local Churches ===<br />
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In Catholic teaching, each diocese too is a local or particular Church: "A diocese is a section of the People of God entrusted to a bishop to be guided by him with the assistance of his clergy so that, loyal to its pastor and formed by him into one community in the Holy Spirit through the Gospel and the Eucharist, it constitutes one particular church in which the one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church of Christ is truly present and active" (Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Pastoral Office of Bishops in the Church ''Christus Dominus'', 11[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19651028_christus-dominus_en.html]).<br />
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===Theological significance===<br />
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The particular Churches within the Roman Catholic Church, whether rites or dioceses, are seen as not simply branches or sections of a larger body. Theologically, each is considered to be the embodiment in a particular place of the whole Roman Catholic Church. "It is in these and formed out of them that the one and unique Catholic Church exists" (Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Decree on the Church ''Lumen Gentium'', 23.[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html]).<br />
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== Organization ==<br />
=== The Pope ===<br />
What most obviously distinguishes the Roman Catholic Church from others is the link between its members and the Pope. The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], 882, quoting the Second Vatican Council&#8217;s document ''Lumen Gentium'', states: "The ''Pope'', Bishop of Rome and Peter&#8217;s successor, &#8216;is the perpetual and visible source and foundation of the unity both of the bishops and of the whole company of the faithful.&#8217;"[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm#I]<br />
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The Pope is referred to as the Vicar of Christ and the Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church. Applying to him the term "absolute" would, however, give a false impression: he is not free (the word "absolute" etymologically means "loosed") to issue decrees at whim. Instead, his charge forces on him awareness that he, even more than other bishops, is "tied", bound, by an obligation of strictest fidelity to the teaching transmitted down the centuries in increasingly developed form within the Catholic Church.<br />
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In certain circumstances, this papal primacy, which is referred to also as the Pope's Petrine authority or function, involves [[papal infallibility]], i.e. the [[dogmatic definition|definitive]] character of the teaching on matters of faith and morals that he propounds solemnly as visible head of the Church. In any normal circumstances, exercise of this authority will involve previous consultation of all Catholic bishops.<br />
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The ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', 891 says: "&#8217;The Roman Pontiff, head of the college of bishops, enjoys this infallibility in virtue of his office, when, as supreme pastor and teacher of all the faithful &#8211; who confirms his brethren in the faith &#8211; he proclaims by a definitive act a doctrine pertaining to faith or morals... The infallibility promised to the Church is also present in the body of bishops when, together with Peter&#8217;s successor, they exercise the supreme [[Magisterium]],&#8217; above all in an [[Ecumenical Council]]."[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm#I]<br />
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These are two ways, the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', 890 states, in which the pastors of the Church exercise the charism of infallibility with which Christ has endowed them for the purpose of guarding from deviation and decay the authentic faith of the definitive covenant that God has established in Christ with his people. In other words, they are two ways of ensuring that "the gates of Hell will not prevail" (Matthew 16:18) against the Church.<br />
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The Pope lives in [[Vatican City]], set up in [[1929]] as a minute, but symbolically important, independent state within the city of Rome. The body of officials that assist him in governance of the Church as a whole is known as the [[Roman curia]]. The term "[[Holy See]]" (i.e. of Rome) is generally used only of Pope and curia, because the Code of Canon Law, which concerns governance of the [[Latin Rite|Latin Church]] as a whole and not internal affairs of the see (diocese) of Rome itself, necessarily uses the term in this technical sense.<br />
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The present rules governing the election of a pope are found in the apostolic constitution ''Universi Dominici Gregis''.[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_22021996_universi-dominici-gregis_en.html] This deals with the powers, from the death of a pope to the announcement of his successor&#8217;s election, of the cardinals and the departments of the Roman curia; with the funeral arrangements for the dead pope; and with the place, time and manner of voting of the meeting of the cardinal electors, a meeting known as a [[conclave]]. This word is derived from Latin ''com-'' (together) and ''clavis'' (key) and refers to the locking away of the participants from outside influences, a measure that was introduced first as a means instead of forcing them to reach a decision.<br />
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A pope has the option of resigning. (The term "abdicate" is not usually used of popes.) The two best known cases are those of [[Pope Celestine V]] in 1294 (who, though the poet [[Dante Alighieri]] pictured him condemned to hell for this action, was canonized in [[1313]]) and [[Pope Gregory XII]], who resigned in [[1415]] to help end the [[Great Western Schism]].<br />
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===The Cardinals===<br />
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[[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] are appointed by the pope, generally from the ranks of his assistants in the curia and bishops of important sees, Latin or Eastern, throughout the world. <br />
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In [[1059]], the right of electing the Pope was assigned exclusively to the principal clergy of Rome and the bishops of the seven "suburbicarian" sees. Because of their resulting importance, the term "cardinal" (from Latin "cardo", meaning "hinge") was applied to them. In the twelfth century the practice of appointing ecclesiastics from outside Rome as cardinals began. Each cardinal is still assigned a church in Rome as his "titular church" or is linked with one of the [[suburbicarian diocese]]s. Of these sees, the [[Dean of the College of Cardinals]] holds that of Ostia while keeping his preceding link with one of the other six sees. Traditionally, there have thus been only six cardinals who hold the rank of [[Cardinal Bishop]], but when [[Eastern rite]] [[patriarch]]s are made cardinals, they too hold the rank of Cardinal Bishop, without being assigned a suburbicarian see, still less a church in Rome. The other cardinals have the rank either of [[Cardinal Priest]] or [[Cardinal Deacon]].<br />
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Only a limited number (which has been set at a maximum of 120) can be admitted to a conclave. The rule has therefore been made that cardinals who have celebrated their eightieth birthday before the pope&#8217;s death may not join the conclave. Accordingly, no more than 120 ecclesiastics below the age of eighty may normally be made cardinals, but there may be any number over that age. This has enabled the Pope to confer the cardinalatial dignity on particularly worthy older clergy, such as theologians, or priests who have suffered long imprisonment under dictatorial regimes.<br />
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The colour associated with the robes of cardinals is a crimson red, while the red of bishops who are not cardinals (and of Apostolic Protonotaries and Honorary Prelates) is really a Roman purple, and that of the lowest class of [[monsignor]]s (Chaplains of His Holiness) has a violet hue known as amarinthine red.<br />
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The hat and tassels of cardinals&#8217; armorial bearings are red; those of bishops and lesser prelates are green.<br />
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=== The Bishops ===<br />
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[[Bishops]] are the successors of the apostles in the governance of the Church. The Pope himself is a bishop and traditionally uses the title "Venerable Brother" when writing formally to another bishop. The typical role of a bishop is to provide pastoral governance for a diocese. Bishops who fulfill this function are known as diocesan ordinaries, because they have what canon law calls ordinary (i.e. not delegated) authority for a diocese. Other bishops may be appointed to assist them (auxiliary and coadjutor bishops) or to carry out a function in a broader field of service to the Church. Even when a bishop retires from his active service, he remains a bishop, since the ontological effect of the sacrament of holy orders is permanent.<br />
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On the other hand, titles such as [[archbishop]] or [[patriarch]] imply no ontological alteration, but are generally associated with special authority. Some of the Eastern Catholic Churches are headed by a patriarch. (A few bishops in the Latin Church also have the title of patriarch, but in their case the title is merely honorary.) Two Eastern Churches are headed by a major archbishop, a bishop who has practically all the powers of a patriarch, but without the title. Smaller Eastern Churches (consisting however of at least two dioceses or, to use the Eastern term, two eparchies) are headed by a metropolitan. Within the Latin Church too, dioceses are normally grouped together as ecclesiastical provinces, in which the bishop of a particular see has the title of metropolitan archbishop, with some very limited authority for the other dioceses, which are known as suffragan sees. However, almost all the authority of a metropolitan archbishop to intervene in case of necessity with regard to a suffragan see belongs, in the case of the metropolitan see itself, to the senior suffragan bishop. (In some Eastern Churches, the term "metropolitan bishop" corresponds instead to "diocesan ordinary" in the Latin Church; and an Anglican usage of "suffragan" corresponds to Catholic "auxiliary bishop.") The Latin-Church title of primate is now merely honorary.<br />
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Bishops of a country or region form an episcopal conference and meet periodically to discuss common problems. Decisions in certain fields, notably liturgy, fall within the exclusive competence of these conferences. But the decisions are binding on the individual bishops only if agreed to by at least two-thirds of the membership and confirmed by the Holy See.<br />
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=== Other clergy ===<br />
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Bishops are assisted by [[priest]]s and [[deacon]]s. [[parish|Parishes]], whether territorial or person-based, within a diocese are normally in the charge of a priest, known as the parish priest or the pastor. Dioceses too, though normally territorial, may be person-based (as, for instance, a military ordinariate).<br />
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The honorary title of [[Monsignor]] may be conferred by the Pope upon a diocesan priest (not a member of a religious institute) at the request of the priest's bishop. The title goes with any of the following three awards: <br />
* ''Chaplain of His Holiness'' (called Papal Chamberlain until the reform of 31 March 1969 &#8211; see <i>Acta Apostolicae Sedis</i> of that year, pages 334-340, or [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/instruction69.htm this site]), the lowest level, distinguished by purple buttons and trim on the black [[cassock]], with a purple sash. <br />
* ''Honorary Prelate'' (until 1969 called Domestic Prelate), the middle level, distinguished by red buttons and trim on the black cassock, with a purple sash, and by choir dress that includes a purple cassock. <br />
* ''Protonotary Apostolic'', the highest level, with the same dress as that of an Honorary Prelate, except that the non-obligatory purple silk cape known as a ''ferraiuolo'' may be worn also.<br />
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In the Latin Church only celibate men, as a rule, are ordained as priests, while the Eastern Catholic Churches also ordain married men. Both sides maintain the tradition of holding it impossible for a priest to marry. Even a married priest whose wife dies may not then marry.<br />
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To explain this tradition, one theory[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cclergy/documents/rc_con_cclergy_doc_01011993_chisto_en.html] holds that, in early practice, married men who became priests &#8211; they were often older men, "elders" &#8211; were expected to refrain permanently from sexual relations with their wives, perhaps because they, as priests representing Christ, were treated as the Church's spouse. When at a later stage it was clear that not all did refrain, the Western reaction was to ordain only celibates, while the Eastern Churches relaxed the rule, so that Eastern Orthodox Churches now require their married clergy to abstain from sexual relations only for a limited period before celebrating the Eucharist. The Church in Persia, which in the fifth century became separated from the Church described as Orthodox or Catholic, decided at the end of that century to abolish the rule of continence and allow priests to marry, but recognized that it was abrogating an ancient tradition. The Coptic and Ethiopic Churches, whose separation came slightly later, allow deacons (who are ordained when they are boys) to marry, but not priests. The theory in question, if true, helps explain why all the ancient Christian Churches of both East and West, with the one exception mentioned, exclude marriage after priestly ordination, and why all reserve the episcopate (seen as a fuller form of priesthood than the presbyterate) for the celibate.<br />
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Since the [[Second Vatican Council]], the Latin Church admits married men of mature age to ordination as deacons, but not if they intend to advance to priestly ordination. Ordination even to the diaconate is an impediment to a later marriage, though special dispensation can be received for remarriage under extenuating circumstances.<br />
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The Roman Catholic Church and the other ancient Christian Churches see priestly ordination as a [[sacrament]] effecting an ontological change, not as the deputizing of someone to perform a function or as the admission of someone to a profession such as that of medicine or law. They also consider that priestly ordination can be conferred only on males. In the face of continued questioning, Pope John Paul II felt obliged to confirm the existing teaching that the Church is not empowered to change this practice: "In order that all doubt may be removed regarding a matter of great importance, a matter which pertains to the Church's divine constitution itself, in virtue of my ministry of confirming the brethren (cf. [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 22:32) I declare that the Church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgment is to be definitively held by all the Church's faithful."<br />
(John Paul II, ''Ordinatio Sacerdotis'' [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_22051994_ordinatio-sacerdotalis_en.html] )<br />
The Roman Catholic Church thus holds this teaching as irrevocable and as having the character of [[Infallibility of the Church|infallibility]], not in virtue of the apostolic letter ''Ordinatio Sacerdotalis'' itself, from which this quotation is taken and which states this only implicitly, but because the teaching "has been preserved by the constant and universal Tradition of the Church and firmly taught by the Magisterium."<br />
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What in the Latin Church were called minor orders have, since the Second Vatican Council, been reduced to two, lectors and [[acolyte|acolytes]]. These are now called "instituted ministries", and those on whom they are conferred are no longer classified as members of the clergy.<br />
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=== Public consecrated life ===<br />
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Within the Catholic Church, there are those who publicly undertake to observe as obligations what the Christian gospel proposes as counsels rather than commands. Some Catholics, in particular hermits and consecrated virgins, do so individually. Others group together to form what are called religious institutes. The term "[[Catholic order|religious order]]", which in its strict sense refers only to a subset of these institutes, is commonly used also of all of them.<br />
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There is a great variety of religious institutes. Some have only lay members, others have both priests and lay members, others still may have only priests and men preparing for priesthood. Some date from the earliest centuries of Christianity, others spring up every year.<br />
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These groups normally begin as an association formed, with the consent of the diocesan bishop, for the purpose of becoming a religious institute. After time has provided proof of the rectitude, seriousness and durability of the group, the bishop, after consulting the Holy See, may formally set it up as a religious institute, for which he is responsible. Later, when it has grown in numbers, perhaps extending also into other dioceses, and further proved its worth, then the Holy See may grant it formal approval, bringing it under the Holy See's responsibility, rather than that of the bishops of the dioceses where it is present. For the good of institutes and to provide for the needs of their apostolate, the Holy See can exempt them from the governance of the local bishops, bringing them entirely under the authority of the Holy See itself or of someone else.<br />
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The oldest existing forms of such institutes are those of [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, such as the [[Benedictines]] of the West and the [[Basilians]] of the East, living in monasteries. Around the thirteenth century Mendicant Orders, such as of those of the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] and [[Franciscan]]s, arose. Unlike the monks and nuns, the members of these orders had their convents not in the country but in the towns, which were becoming increasingly important. One of the best known of those that appeared still later is the [[Society of Jesus]], which today is the religious institute with the largest number of members (known as Jesuits).<br />
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Typically, members of religious institutes take vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. For some, the vow of stability in a monastery or to live according to a particular written rule is considered to include these vows. Other institutes add further vows. People wishing to join a religious institute may spend some time as postulants, then as novices, and then one or more periods with temporary vows, before committing themselves fully with perpetual vows.<br />
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Unless they are priests, male members of religious institutes are usually referred to as "Brother", while in female institutes most members are called "Sister", but the superior of the whole institute, or even of a single community, is usually called "Mother" or "[[Mother Superior]]".<br />
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Secular institutes are another form of consecrated life. They differ from religious institutes in that their members live their lives in the ordinary conditions of the world, either alone, in their families or in fraternal groups.<br />
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Somewhat similar are the societies of apostolic life, dedicated to pursuit of an apostolic purpose, such as educational or missionary work. They do not take religious vows, but live in common, striving for perfection through observing the "constitutions" of the society to which they belong.<br />
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== Worldwide distribution ==<br />
The total number of Catholics in the world is over one billion. They are found in nearly every country, though they are more concentrated in the Americas and Europe. They currently make up 63% of the population of [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], 40% of [[Europe]], roughly 20% of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], and 3% of [[Asia]] [http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/ANNU2000.HTM]. <br />
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In [[Europe]], Catholic majorities are found in [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Croatia]], [[France]], [[Hungary]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Spain]]. [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Switzerland]], as well as [[Northern Ireland]], are about equally divided between Catholics and Protestants. In the [[Czech Republic]], Roman Catholics make up 39% of the population. Catholics are a significant minority in [[Britain]], where their faith underwent a revival in the [[19th Century|19th]] and early [[20th Century]] after three centuries of relentless persecution.<br />
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Nearly all [[Latin American]] countries have large Catholic majorities, among them being such heavyweights as [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], [[Colombia]], and [[Argentina]]. Catholics in the [[United States of America]] are more numerous than any other single Church: as a result of massive immigration, mainly from countries like [[Italy]], [[Ireland]] and [[Germany]], their number grew from virtually nothing in 1790 to about a quarter of the total population by 1920, a proportion that remains today. Catholics are a majority in neighbouring [[Canada]], where there has been a strong historical presence of France and much immigration from Catholic countries. <br />
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In Asia, the [[Philippines]] (once a Spanish colony) and [[East Timor]] (a former Portuguese colony) have Catholic majorities, and most Christians in [[Lebanon]] are Roman Catholics, while a significant Catholic population has developed in [[South Korea]].<br />
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Catholicism has spread relatively recently to some parts of the world. There are now some 115 million in [[Africa]].<br />
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The number of Catholics in the world continues to increase, through population growth in developing countries and, to a lesser extent, spread to new areas. The increase between [[1978]] and [[2000]] was 288 million. [[Protestant]] [[evangelicals]] have succeeded in making inroads into parts of Latin America, but remain a small percentage of the population. In most industrialized countries, church attendance has decreased since the [[19th century]], though it remains higher than that of other "mainline" Churches.<br />
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== Criticisms ==<br />
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Over the centuries, the Roman Catholic Church has gathered criticisms for numerous reasons. (Some particular controversies are discussed in separate articles.)<br />
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[[Pope John Paul II]] acknowledged publicly that the Roman Catholic Church (and its members) has sometimes been involved in questionable activities, and asked God to forgive its sins, both in action and omission.<br />
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===Historical criticism===<br />
Historically, the Church's response to [[heresy]] through the [[Inquisition]] and its alleged association with [[witchhunt]]s have brought criticism. [[Pope John Paul II]] apologized for certain historic excesses in May 1995.<br />
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Itself an essentially non-democratic, highly centralized organization, it has been accused of supporting [[absolute monarchy]] and, later, [[Fascism]] and [[Falange|Falangism]]. <br />
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Though others have credited the Church for contributions to many of western society's fundamental principles of human rights, [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment philosophers]] perceived the Church's doctrines as superstitious and hindering the progress of civilization. Many thinkers and academics criticized it for opposing scientific advancement. The trial of [[Galileo Galilei]] is a famous example of the Church's advocacy of Ptolemaic [[geocentrism]]. [[Pope John Paul II]] also acknowledged this, and publicly apologized for the Church's actions on October 31, 1992. The Church has, however, made many contributions to philosophy, art, music, engineering and architecture.<br />
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== See also ==<br />
*[[:Category:Roman Catholic Church|Other articles on the Catholic Church]]<br />
*[[History_of_the_Roman_Catholic_Church|History of the Roman Catholic Church]]<br />
*[[Christianity]]<br />
*[[:Category:Roman_Catholic_Church_by_Country|Roman Catholic Church by Country]]<br />
*[[Catholic Worker Movement]]<br />
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== External links ==<br />
{{wikisourcecat}}<br />
* [http://www.vatican.va Vatican: the Holy See]<br />
* [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church] <br />
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ The Catholic Encyclopedia] Resource concerning Catholic history and doctrine as well as related matters of philosophy.<br />
* [http://www.catholic.com/ Catholic Answers] Catholic apologetics and evangelization organization in North America<br />
* [http://www.masstimes.org/ Mass Times] A directory of Mass times, parish locations, directions and phone numbers for traveling Catholics<br />
* [http://www.compasschurch.com/ Athens Church] Catholics visiting Athens are welcome to attend our service.<br />
* [http://www.cathworld.org/search CATHworld Search Engine] Resource for finding Catholic information and sites.<br />
* [http://catholicapologeticsofamerica.blogspot.com Catholic Apologetics of America] A large, award winning Catholic blog with several articles and links.<br />
* [http://www.stblogsparishhall.com Catholic Blogs and Resources]<br />
* [http://www.catholicculture.org/sites/sites.cfm Catholic Culture Sites Review] A categorized, reviewed, searchable collection of links to orthodox Roman Catholic links. Ratings for fidelity, resources and useability.<br />
*[http://www.aboutcatholics.com/ About Catholics] Catholic evangelization and information about specific beliefs<br />
* [http://www.trulyopendirectory.com/Religion_And_Spirituality_-_Christianity_-_Denominations_-_Catholicism Truly Open Directory] A categorized collection of links on Roman Catholicism<br />
* [http://www.catholicexchange.com/ Catholic Exchange] non-profit evangelist charity <br />
* [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/ Catholic Hierarchy] information on Catholic bishops and dioceses<br />
* [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/cardinals.htm The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church] information on the Cardinals of the Catholic Church<br />
* [http://CUF.org Catholics United for the Faith]<br />
* [http://ewtn.com EWTN] American Catholic television station, live streaming in English and Spanish. <br />
* [http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/ANNU2000.HTM Statistics on the Global Catholic population]<br />
* [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/augustine/a/faq-cc.html Frequently Asked Questions About the Catholic Church]<br />
* [http://catholic.tc/welcome.html Catholic Church in Providenciales, Grand Turk, South Caicos and North Caicos]<br />
* [http://catholicism.about.com Catholicism from About.com]<br />
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== Additional reading ==<br />
*''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' - English translation (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2000). ISBN 1574551108 [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm]<br />
*H. W. Crocker III, ''Triumph - The Power and the Glory of the Catholic Church: A 2,000-Year History'' (Prima Publishing, 2001). ISBN 0761529241<br />
*Eamon Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes'' (Yale Nota Bene, 2002). ISBN 0300091656<br />
*K. O. Johnson, ''Why Do Catholics Do That?'' (Ballantine, 1994). ISBN 0345397266<br />
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[[Category:Christian denominations]]<br />
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[[vi:Giáo h&#7897;i Công giáo Rôma]]</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=Roman_Catholic_Church&diff=4851Roman Catholic Church2005-07-09T07:23:39Z<p>Jachin: /* Worldwide distribution */</p>
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<div>The '''Roman Catholic Church''' is the largest [[religious denomination|denomination]] of [[Christianity]] with over 1.1 billion members. It claims that it is both organizationally and doctrinally the original Christian Church, founded by [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]]. It also claims unbroken [[Apostolic Succession]] from [[St. Peter]] and the other [[Apostles]]. The [[Second Vatican Council]]'s Decree on the Church ''[[Lumen Gentium]]'', 8,[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html] declared that "the sole Church of Christ which in the Creed we profess to be one, holy, catholic and [[apostolic]]" has a concrete realization (the [[Latin]] term is "subsistit") "in the Catholic Church, which is governed by the successor of Peter and by the bishops in communion with him". "Successor of Peter" refers to the [[Pope]], currently [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]].<br />
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The Roman Catholic Church is also one of the largest and oldest continuously operating institutions in existence. (For history see [[History of the Roman Catholic Church]].)<br />
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It is a [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] organization in which ordained [[clergy]] are divided into the [[Holy Orders|orders]] of [[bishop]]s, [[priest]]s and [[deacon]]s. The world is divided into 2755 (at the end of 2004) [[diocese]]s, sometimes called bishoprics, each with a presiding bishop, responsible for the religious welfare of the faithful in his geographical area. The diocese of [[Rome]] has always been pre-eminent in the Church, because it is the seat of the bishop, known as the [[Pope]], who is considered by Catholics to be the successor of [[Saint Peter]], the chief of the [[Apostles]].<br />
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== Overview ==<br />
The Roman Catholic Church has a membership in every country in the [[World]].The Church sees itself as instituted by Jesus Christ for the salvation of [[soul]]s. It accomplishes this goal through teaching and through administration of [[sacraments]], including [[baptism]], the [[Eucharist]], and the forgiveness of sins, through which [[God]] grants [[grace]] to the believer. The teaching authority or [[magisterium]] of the Church bases its teachings on both [[Scripture]] and apostolic tradition. As well as ordained secular clergy, the Church encourages [[monasticism]], and has many orders of monks, friars and nuns who live in [[celibacy]], and devote their lives entirely to God. Other religious practices include [[fasting]], [[prayer]], [[penance]], [[pilgrimage]] and [[meditation]].<br />
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According to the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], the Church's first purpose is "to be the sacrament of the inner union of men with God." Thus the Church's "structure is totally ordered to the holiness of Christ's members." (''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' 775, 773)<br />
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== Terminology ==<br />
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Since the term "Catholic Church" has multiple meanings (see [[Catholicism]]), this article uses the term "Roman Catholic Church", to avoid confusion. The relationship between the [[Latin Rite|Western or Latin]] and the Eastern Churches within the Roman Catholic Church is dealt with below.<br />
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The choice of the phrase "Roman Catholic Church" should not be interpreted as opposition to the use, for this Church, of the simpler term "Catholic Church", which its members prefer. Indeed, the following extract from what St Augustine (AD [[354]]-[[430]]) wrote in AD [[397]] still holds, in the twenty-first century, for the actual practice, as distinct from the theoretical position, of those who take a divergent stance on the importance of the link with the "seat of the Apostle Peter": when speaking formally, they may say "Roman Catholic Church" or employ a similar limiting phrase, but in ordinary everyday conversation they accept and may even themselves use the term "Catholic Church". (Note that in Augustine&#8217;s time Christians applied the word "priest" to bishops, but not to the lower rank of clergy that are today called "priests" in English.)<br />
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:''In the Catholic Church ... there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the [[Apostle]] [[Peter]], to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15-19), down to the present episcopate. And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house.'' <br />
: &mdash; <i>Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental</i>, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith[http://www.ccel.org/pager.cgi?&file=fathers/NPNF1-04/augustine/bk_fundamental/bk1.html&from=CHAP4&up=]<br />
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== Liturgy ==<br />
The centre of the Roman Catholic Church's life is the [[liturgy|liturgical]] service of the [[Eucharist]] or Mass. On each Sunday and [[Holy Day of Obligation]] or on the evening before, Catholics have an obligation to participate in this celebration. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that the Mass is the un-bloody renewal of the Sacrifice of Calvary upon the altar, and the most perfect way to fulfill man's "four-fold duties" to God: adoration, thanksgiving, satisfaction for sins, and petition. For further information, see the article [[Mass (liturgy)]] and the references in that article.<br />
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Another especially important part of the Church's continual prayer is the [[Liturgy of the Hours]], whose particular characteristic is to consecrate the course of day and night. Lauds and [[Vespers]] (morning and evening prayer) are the principal hours. To these are added one or three intermediate prayer periods (traditionally called Terce, Sext and None), another prayer period to end the day ([[Compline]]), and a special period at no fixed time devoted chiefly to readings from the [[Bible|Scriptures]] and ecclesiastical writers. The prayers consist principally of the Psalter or [[Book of Psalms]]. Like the Mass, the Liturgy of the Hours has inspired great musical compositions. Earlier names for the Liturgy of the Hours were the Divine Office (a name still used as the title of one English translation), the Book of Hours, and the [[Breviary]]. All priests and religious leaders are obligated to pray the Liturgy of the Hours daily.<br />
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==Sacraments==<br />
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The Roman Catholic Church recognizes and administers seven [[Sacrament|sacraments]], which are considered gifts of Christ through the Church which give [[Divine grace]] to those who receive them. All grace comes from the [[Passion]] and [[Resurrection]] of Jesus, thus the sacraments are vehicles or channels of grace. The sacraments are listed here with reference to the section of the Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) that deals with each. <br />
* [[Baptism]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3G.HTM CCC 1213-1284]<br />
* [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3P.HTM CCC1285-1321]<br />
* [[Eucharist]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3W.HTM CCC 1322-1419]<br />
* [[Confession|Reconciliation and Penance (Confession)]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P46.HTM CCC 1422-1498]<br />
* [[Anointing of the Sick]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P4J.HTM CCC 1499-1532] <br />
* [[Holy Orders]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P4R.HTM CCC 1536-1600]<br />
* [[Holy Matrimony|Matrimony]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P50.HTM CCC 1601-1666]<br />
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== Doctrine ==<br />
In Roman Catholic theology, the Deposit of the Faith (all the dogmas and beliefs of the Church) comes from two sources: the [[Bible]] and Sacred Tradition. Roman Catholics believe that Jesus Christ transmitted the entire Catholic Faith to the apostles; a portion of this Faith was written down and is found in the Bible, and the other portion was orally handed down through the centuries. The Bible is the normal rule of faith ([[norma scriptura]]) and no Catholic belief or practice can contradict it. <br />
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The Roman Catholic Church attributes very high authority to 21 [[Ecumenical Councils]]: Nicaea I (325), Constantinople I (381), Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451), Constantinople II (553), Constantinople III (680-681), Nicaea II (787), Constantinople IV (869-870), Lateran I (1123), Lateran II (1139), Lateran III (1179), Lateran IV (1215), Lyons I (1245), Lyons II (1274), Vienne (1311-1312), Constance (1414-1418), Florence (1438-1445), Lateran V (1512-1517), Trent (1545-1563), Vatican I (1869-1870), Vatican II (1962-1965).<br />
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Of these, the Orthodox Churches of Byzantine tradition accept only the first seven, the family of "non-Chalcedonian" or "pre-Chalcedonian" Churches only the first three, and the Christians of Nestorian tradition only the first two.<br />
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Dialogue has shown that even where the break with one of these ancient Churches occurred as far back as the Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451), long before the break with Constantinople (1054), the few doctrinal differences often concern terminology, not substance.<br />
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Emblematic is the "Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East" [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/documents/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_11111994_assyrian-church_en.html] (note the use in an inter-Church document of "Catholic Church" rather than "Roman Catholic Church"), signed by "His Holiness John Paul II, Bishop of Rome and Pope of the Catholic Church, and His Holiness Mar Dinkha IV, Catholicos-Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East", on 11 November 1994. The division between the two Churches in question goes back to the disputes over the legitimacy of the expression "Mother of God" (as well as "Mother of Christ") for the [[Virgin Mary]] that came to a head at the Council of Ephesus in 431. The Common Declaration recalls that the Assyrian Church of the East prays the Virgin Mary as "the Mother of Christ our God and Saviour", and the Catholic tradition addresses the Virgin Mary as "the Mother of God" and also as "the Mother of Christ", fuller expressions by which each Church clearly acknowledges both the divinity and the humanity of Mary's son. The co-signers of the Common Declaration could thus state: "We both recognize the legitimacy and rightness of these expressions of the same faith and we both respect the preference of each Church in her liturgical life and piety."<br />
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Some, at least, of the most difficult questions in relations with the ancient Eastern Churches concern not so much doctrine as practical matters such as the concrete exercise of the claim to papal primacy and how to ensure that ecclesial union would not mean mere absorption of the smaller Churches by the Latin component of the much larger Roman Catholic Church (the most numerous single religious denomination in the world), and the stifling or abandonment of their own rich theological, liturgical and cultural heritage.<br />
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There are much greater differences with the doctrinal views of [[Protestantism|Protestants]], whom Roman Catholics feel have broken continuity with the past, and the true teachings of the [[apostles]], for the sake of what Protestants believe to be the true teaching of the [[apostles]]. But even with these groups, dialogue has on both sides clarified some misunderstandings of what the other believes.<br />
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===Magisterium===<br />
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The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], 85 states that authentic interpretation of the word of God is entrusted to the living Magisterium of the Church, namely the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter. Roman Catholic theology places the authoritative interpretation of scripture in the hands of the corporate judgment of the Church rather than the private judgment of the individual. <br />
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=== Social teaching === <br />
{{main|Catholic social teaching}}<br />
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The Church holds that the teachings of [[Jesus]] call on its members to act in a particular way in their dealings with the rest of humanity. While not endorsing any particular political agenda, the Church holds that this teaching applies in the public (political) realm, not only the private. Among these teachings, as they have been elaborated in recent decades by Catholic thinkers, Bishops' statements and Papal [[encyclical]]s, are that every person has a [[right to life]] and to a decent minimum standards of living, that humanity's use of God's creation implies a responsibility to protect the environment, and that the range of circumstances under which military force is permissible is extremely limited.<br />
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== Particular Churches within the single Roman Catholic Church ==<br />
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Unlike "families" or "communions" of Churches that see themselves as distinct Churches, the Church of those who are in full communion with the Pope considers itself a single Church, not a federation of Churches. It has authoritatively expressed this self-understanding in, for instance, the 28 May 1992 ''Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on some aspects of the Church understood as communion'', 9.[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_28051992_communionis-notio_en.html]<br />
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Accordingly, it has never adopted the usage of those who apply the term "Roman Catholic" to the Latin or Western Church alone, to the exclusion of the Eastern Churches that also are in full communion with the Bishop of Rome. When it employs the term "Roman Catholic Church", which it rarely does except in its relations with other Churches, it means the whole Church "governed by the successor of Peter and by the bishops in communion with him", wherever they live and whether they are of Eastern or Western tradition, since this Church has Rome as its centre. The only other meaning it would give to "Roman Catholic" is "a Catholic who lives in Rome", as a Catholic who lives in Warsaw could be called a Warsaw Catholic.<br />
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On the other hand, the Roman Catholic Church attaches great importance to the [[particular Church]]es within it, whose theological significance the Second Vatican Council highlighted. Two categories of particular Churches are distinguished.<br />
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=== Particular Churches or rites ===<br />
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The higher level of particular Churches is that of what the Second Vatican Council&#8217;s Decree on the Catholic Eastern Churches ''Orientalium Ecclesiarum'', 2[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19641121_orientalium-ecclesiarum_en.html] calls "particular Churches or rites". The long-established use of the term "rite" for these particular Churches is due to the central place that the Eucharist holds in the Roman Catholic Church, making each particular Church's liturgy its most noted distinguishing mark.<br />
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However, the word "rite" is used not only of particular Churches but also of liturgical rites. Examples are the [[Ambrosian rite]], the [[Mozarabic rite]] and the Roman rite, different liturgical rites used within the one Latin particular Church or Latin rite (singular). And terms such as "Byzantine rite" may refer to a liturgical rite used by more than one particular Church. To avoid the ambiguity to be found in the terms "particular Church" and "rite", the [[1983]] ''Code of Canon Law'' adopted instead the term "autonomous ritual Church" (in Latin, "Ecclesia ritualis sui iuris") for the same reality; and the [[1990]] ''Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches'' shortened this to "autonomous Church" (in Latin, "Ecclesia sui iuris").<br />
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The autonomy of each such Church, Eastern or Western, shows in its distinctive liturgy, canon law, theological tradition etc. The Latin or Western particular Church is governed by the ''Code of Canon Law'', while the ''Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches'' outlines the discipline that the Eastern particular Churches have in common.<br />
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The official yearly Vatican directory, ''Annuario Pontificio'' (Libreria Editrice Vaticana), gives the following list of rites (in the sense of particular Churches) within the Roman Catholic Church:<br />
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:A. Eastern rites of Alexandrian tradition: [[Coptic Catholic Church|Coptic]], Ethiopic (2).<br />
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:B. Eastern rites of Antiochian tradition: [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church|Malankara]], [[Maronite|Maronite]], [[Syrian Catholic Church|Syrian]] (3).<br />
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:C. Eastern rite of Armenian tradition: [[Armenian Catholic Church|Armenian Church]] (1).<br />
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:D. Eastern rites of Chaldaean or East-Syrian tradition: [[Chaldean]], [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church|Malabar]] (2).<br />
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:E. Eastern rites of Constantinopolitan or Byzantine tradition: [[Albanian Catholic Church|Albanian]], [[Belarusian Catholic Church|Belarusian]], Bulgarian, Greek, Greek-Melkite, Hungarian, Italo-Albanian, [[Romanian_Catholic_Church|Romanian]], Russian, [[Ruthenian Catholic Church|Ruthenian]], Slovak, [[Ukrainian_Greek_Catholic_Church|Ukrainian]] (12).<br />
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:F. [[Latin rite]] (1).<br />
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=== Particular or local Churches ===<br />
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In Catholic teaching, each diocese too is a local or particular Church: "A diocese is a section of the People of God entrusted to a bishop to be guided by him with the assistance of his clergy so that, loyal to its pastor and formed by him into one community in the Holy Spirit through the Gospel and the Eucharist, it constitutes one particular church in which the one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church of Christ is truly present and active" (Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Pastoral Office of Bishops in the Church ''Christus Dominus'', 11[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19651028_christus-dominus_en.html]).<br />
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===Theological significance===<br />
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The particular Churches within the Roman Catholic Church, whether rites or dioceses, are seen as not simply branches or sections of a larger body. Theologically, each is considered to be the embodiment in a particular place of the whole Roman Catholic Church. "It is in these and formed out of them that the one and unique Catholic Church exists" (Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Decree on the Church ''Lumen Gentium'', 23.[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html]).<br />
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== Organization ==<br />
=== The Pope ===<br />
What most obviously distinguishes the Roman Catholic Church from others is the link between its members and the Pope. The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], 882, quoting the Second Vatican Council&#8217;s document ''Lumen Gentium'', states: "The ''Pope'', Bishop of Rome and Peter&#8217;s successor, &#8216;is the perpetual and visible source and foundation of the unity both of the bishops and of the whole company of the faithful.&#8217;"[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm#I]<br />
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The Pope is referred to as the Vicar of Christ and the Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church. Applying to him the term "absolute" would, however, give a false impression: he is not free (the word "absolute" etymologically means "loosed") to issue decrees at whim. Instead, his charge forces on him awareness that he, even more than other bishops, is "tied", bound, by an obligation of strictest fidelity to the teaching transmitted down the centuries in increasingly developed form within the Catholic Church.<br />
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In certain circumstances, this papal primacy, which is referred to also as the Pope's Petrine authority or function, involves [[papal infallibility]], i.e. the [[dogmatic definition|definitive]] character of the teaching on matters of faith and morals that he propounds solemnly as visible head of the Church. In any normal circumstances, exercise of this authority will involve previous consultation of all Catholic bishops.<br />
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The ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', 891 says: "&#8217;The Roman Pontiff, head of the college of bishops, enjoys this infallibility in virtue of his office, when, as supreme pastor and teacher of all the faithful &#8211; who confirms his brethren in the faith &#8211; he proclaims by a definitive act a doctrine pertaining to faith or morals... The infallibility promised to the Church is also present in the body of bishops when, together with Peter&#8217;s successor, they exercise the supreme [[Magisterium]],&#8217; above all in an [[Ecumenical Council]]."[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm#I]<br />
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These are two ways, the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', 890 states, in which the pastors of the Church exercise the charism of infallibility with which Christ has endowed them for the purpose of guarding from deviation and decay the authentic faith of the definitive covenant that God has established in Christ with his people. In other words, they are two ways of ensuring that "the gates of Hell will not prevail" (Matthew 16:18) against the Church.<br />
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The Pope lives in [[Vatican City]], set up in [[1929]] as a minute, but symbolically important, independent state within the city of Rome. The body of officials that assist him in governance of the Church as a whole is known as the [[Roman curia]]. The term "[[Holy See]]" (i.e. of Rome) is generally used only of Pope and curia, because the Code of Canon Law, which concerns governance of the [[Latin Rite|Latin Church]] as a whole and not internal affairs of the see (diocese) of Rome itself, necessarily uses the term in this technical sense.<br />
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The present rules governing the election of a pope are found in the apostolic constitution ''Universi Dominici Gregis''.[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_22021996_universi-dominici-gregis_en.html] This deals with the powers, from the death of a pope to the announcement of his successor&#8217;s election, of the cardinals and the departments of the Roman curia; with the funeral arrangements for the dead pope; and with the place, time and manner of voting of the meeting of the cardinal electors, a meeting known as a [[conclave]]. This word is derived from Latin ''com-'' (together) and ''clavis'' (key) and refers to the locking away of the participants from outside influences, a measure that was introduced first as a means instead of forcing them to reach a decision.<br />
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A pope has the option of resigning. (The term "abdicate" is not usually used of popes.) The two best known cases are those of [[Pope Celestine V]] in 1294 (who, though the poet [[Dante Alighieri]] pictured him condemned to hell for this action, was canonized in [[1313]]) and [[Pope Gregory XII]], who resigned in [[1415]] to help end the [[Great Western Schism]].<br />
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===The Cardinals===<br />
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[[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] are appointed by the pope, generally from the ranks of his assistants in the curia and bishops of important sees, Latin or Eastern, throughout the world. <br />
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In [[1059]], the right of electing the Pope was assigned exclusively to the principal clergy of Rome and the bishops of the seven "suburbicarian" sees. Because of their resulting importance, the term "cardinal" (from Latin "cardo", meaning "hinge") was applied to them. In the twelfth century the practice of appointing ecclesiastics from outside Rome as cardinals began. Each cardinal is still assigned a church in Rome as his "titular church" or is linked with one of the [[suburbicarian diocese]]s. Of these sees, the [[Dean of the College of Cardinals]] holds that of Ostia while keeping his preceding link with one of the other six sees. Traditionally, there have thus been only six cardinals who hold the rank of [[Cardinal Bishop]], but when [[Eastern rite]] [[patriarch]]s are made cardinals, they too hold the rank of Cardinal Bishop, without being assigned a suburbicarian see, still less a church in Rome. The other cardinals have the rank either of [[Cardinal Priest]] or [[Cardinal Deacon]].<br />
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Only a limited number (which has been set at a maximum of 120) can be admitted to a conclave. The rule has therefore been made that cardinals who have celebrated their eightieth birthday before the pope&#8217;s death may not join the conclave. Accordingly, no more than 120 ecclesiastics below the age of eighty may normally be made cardinals, but there may be any number over that age. This has enabled the Pope to confer the cardinalatial dignity on particularly worthy older clergy, such as theologians, or priests who have suffered long imprisonment under dictatorial regimes.<br />
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The colour associated with the robes of cardinals is a crimson red, while the red of bishops who are not cardinals (and of Apostolic Protonotaries and Honorary Prelates) is really a Roman purple, and that of the lowest class of [[monsignor]]s (Chaplains of His Holiness) has a violet hue known as amarinthine red.<br />
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The hat and tassels of cardinals&#8217; armorial bearings are red; those of bishops and lesser prelates are green.<br />
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=== The Bishops ===<br />
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[[Bishops]] are the successors of the apostles in the governance of the Church. The Pope himself is a bishop and traditionally uses the title "Venerable Brother" when writing formally to another bishop. The typical role of a bishop is to provide pastoral governance for a diocese. Bishops who fulfill this function are known as diocesan ordinaries, because they have what canon law calls ordinary (i.e. not delegated) authority for a diocese. Other bishops may be appointed to assist them (auxiliary and coadjutor bishops) or to carry out a function in a broader field of service to the Church. Even when a bishop retires from his active service, he remains a bishop, since the ontological effect of the sacrament of holy orders is permanent.<br />
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On the other hand, titles such as [[archbishop]] or [[patriarch]] imply no ontological alteration, but are generally associated with special authority. Some of the Eastern Catholic Churches are headed by a patriarch. (A few bishops in the Latin Church also have the title of patriarch, but in their case the title is merely honorary.) Two Eastern Churches are headed by a major archbishop, a bishop who has practically all the powers of a patriarch, but without the title. Smaller Eastern Churches (consisting however of at least two dioceses or, to use the Eastern term, two eparchies) are headed by a metropolitan. Within the Latin Church too, dioceses are normally grouped together as ecclesiastical provinces, in which the bishop of a particular see has the title of metropolitan archbishop, with some very limited authority for the other dioceses, which are known as suffragan sees. However, almost all the authority of a metropolitan archbishop to intervene in case of necessity with regard to a suffragan see belongs, in the case of the metropolitan see itself, to the senior suffragan bishop. (In some Eastern Churches, the term "metropolitan bishop" corresponds instead to "diocesan ordinary" in the Latin Church; and an Anglican usage of "suffragan" corresponds to Catholic "auxiliary bishop.") The Latin-Church title of primate is now merely honorary.<br />
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Bishops of a country or region form an episcopal conference and meet periodically to discuss common problems. Decisions in certain fields, notably liturgy, fall within the exclusive competence of these conferences. But the decisions are binding on the individual bishops only if agreed to by at least two-thirds of the membership and confirmed by the Holy See.<br />
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=== Other clergy ===<br />
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Bishops are assisted by [[priest]]s and [[deacon]]s. [[parish|Parishes]], whether territorial or person-based, within a diocese are normally in the charge of a priest, known as the parish priest or the pastor. Dioceses too, though normally territorial, may be person-based (as, for instance, a military ordinariate).<br />
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The honorary title of [[Monsignor]] may be conferred by the Pope upon a diocesan priest (not a member of a religious institute) at the request of the priest's bishop. The title goes with any of the following three awards: <br />
* ''Chaplain of His Holiness'' (called Papal Chamberlain until the reform of 31 March 1969 &#8211; see <i>Acta Apostolicae Sedis</i> of that year, pages 334-340, or [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/instruction69.htm this site]), the lowest level, distinguished by purple buttons and trim on the black [[cassock]], with a purple sash. <br />
* ''Honorary Prelate'' (until 1969 called Domestic Prelate), the middle level, distinguished by red buttons and trim on the black cassock, with a purple sash, and by choir dress that includes a purple cassock. <br />
* ''Protonotary Apostolic'', the highest level, with the same dress as that of an Honorary Prelate, except that the non-obligatory purple silk cape known as a ''ferraiuolo'' may be worn also.<br />
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In the Latin Church only celibate men, as a rule, are ordained as priests, while the Eastern Catholic Churches also ordain married men. Both sides maintain the tradition of holding it impossible for a priest to marry. Even a married priest whose wife dies may not then marry.<br />
<br />
To explain this tradition, one theory[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cclergy/documents/rc_con_cclergy_doc_01011993_chisto_en.html] holds that, in early practice, married men who became priests &#8211; they were often older men, "elders" &#8211; were expected to refrain permanently from sexual relations with their wives, perhaps because they, as priests representing Christ, were treated as the Church's spouse. When at a later stage it was clear that not all did refrain, the Western reaction was to ordain only celibates, while the Eastern Churches relaxed the rule, so that Eastern Orthodox Churches now require their married clergy to abstain from sexual relations only for a limited period before celebrating the Eucharist. The Church in Persia, which in the fifth century became separated from the Church described as Orthodox or Catholic, decided at the end of that century to abolish the rule of continence and allow priests to marry, but recognized that it was abrogating an ancient tradition. The Coptic and Ethiopic Churches, whose separation came slightly later, allow deacons (who are ordained when they are boys) to marry, but not priests. The theory in question, if true, helps explain why all the ancient Christian Churches of both East and West, with the one exception mentioned, exclude marriage after priestly ordination, and why all reserve the episcopate (seen as a fuller form of priesthood than the presbyterate) for the celibate.<br />
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Since the [[Second Vatican Council]], the Latin Church admits married men of mature age to ordination as deacons, but not if they intend to advance to priestly ordination. Ordination even to the diaconate is an impediment to a later marriage, though special dispensation can be received for remarriage under extenuating circumstances.<br />
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The Roman Catholic Church and the other ancient Christian Churches see priestly ordination as a [[sacrament]] effecting an ontological change, not as the deputizing of someone to perform a function or as the admission of someone to a profession such as that of medicine or law. They also consider that priestly ordination can be conferred only on males. In the face of continued questioning, Pope John Paul II felt obliged to confirm the existing teaching that the Church is not empowered to change this practice: "In order that all doubt may be removed regarding a matter of great importance, a matter which pertains to the Church's divine constitution itself, in virtue of my ministry of confirming the brethren (cf. [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 22:32) I declare that the Church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgment is to be definitively held by all the Church's faithful."<br />
(John Paul II, ''Ordinatio Sacerdotis'' [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_22051994_ordinatio-sacerdotalis_en.html] )<br />
The Roman Catholic Church thus holds this teaching as irrevocable and as having the character of [[Infallibility of the Church|infallibility]], not in virtue of the apostolic letter ''Ordinatio Sacerdotalis'' itself, from which this quotation is taken and which states this only implicitly, but because the teaching "has been preserved by the constant and universal Tradition of the Church and firmly taught by the Magisterium."<br />
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What in the Latin Church were called minor orders have, since the Second Vatican Council, been reduced to two, lectors and [[acolyte|acolytes]]. These are now called "instituted ministries", and those on whom they are conferred are no longer classified as members of the clergy.<br />
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=== Public consecrated life ===<br />
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Within the Catholic Church, there are those who publicly undertake to observe as obligations what the Christian gospel proposes as counsels rather than commands. Some Catholics, in particular hermits and consecrated virgins, do so individually. Others group together to form what are called religious institutes. The term "[[Catholic order|religious order]]", which in its strict sense refers only to a subset of these institutes, is commonly used also of all of them.<br />
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There is a great variety of religious institutes. Some have only lay members, others have both priests and lay members, others still may have only priests and men preparing for priesthood. Some date from the earliest centuries of Christianity, others spring up every year.<br />
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These groups normally begin as an association formed, with the consent of the diocesan bishop, for the purpose of becoming a religious institute. After time has provided proof of the rectitude, seriousness and durability of the group, the bishop, after consulting the Holy See, may formally set it up as a religious institute, for which he is responsible. Later, when it has grown in numbers, perhaps extending also into other dioceses, and further proved its worth, then the Holy See may grant it formal approval, bringing it under the Holy See's responsibility, rather than that of the bishops of the dioceses where it is present. For the good of institutes and to provide for the needs of their apostolate, the Holy See can exempt them from the governance of the local bishops, bringing them entirely under the authority of the Holy See itself or of someone else.<br />
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The oldest existing forms of such institutes are those of [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, such as the [[Benedictines]] of the West and the [[Basilians]] of the East, living in monasteries. Around the thirteenth century Mendicant Orders, such as of those of the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] and [[Franciscan]]s, arose. Unlike the monks and nuns, the members of these orders had their convents not in the country but in the towns, which were becoming increasingly important. One of the best known of those that appeared still later is the [[Society of Jesus]], which today is the religious institute with the largest number of members (known as Jesuits).<br />
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Typically, members of religious institutes take vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. For some, the vow of stability in a monastery or to live according to a particular written rule is considered to include these vows. Other institutes add further vows. People wishing to join a religious institute may spend some time as postulants, then as novices, and then one or more periods with temporary vows, before committing themselves fully with perpetual vows.<br />
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Unless they are priests, male members of religious institutes are usually referred to as "Brother", while in female institutes most members are called "Sister", but the superior of the whole institute, or even of a single community, is usually called "Mother" or "[[Mother Superior]]".<br />
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Secular institutes are another form of consecrated life. They differ from religious institutes in that their members live their lives in the ordinary conditions of the world, either alone, in their families or in fraternal groups.<br />
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Somewhat similar are the societies of apostolic life, dedicated to pursuit of an apostolic purpose, such as educational or missionary work. They do not take religious vows, but live in common, striving for perfection through observing the "constitutions" of the society to which they belong.<br />
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== Worldwide distribution ==<br />
The total number of Catholics in the world is over one billion. They are found in nearly every country, though they are more concentrated in the Americas and Europe. They currently make up 63% of the population of [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], 40% of [[Europe]], roughly 20% of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], and 3% of [[Asia]] [http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/ANNU2000.HTM]. <br />
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In [[Europe]], Catholic majorities are found in [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Croatia]], [[France]], [[Hungary]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Spain]]. [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Switzerland]], as well as [[Northern Ireland]], are about equally divided between Catholics and Protestants. In the [[Czech Republic]], Roman Catholics make up 39% of the population. Catholics are a significant minority in [[Britain]], where their faith underwent a revival in the [[19th Century|19th]] and early [[20th Century]] after three centuries of relentless persecution.<br />
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Nearly all [[Latin American]] countries have large Catholic majorities, among them being such heavyweights as [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], [[Colombia]], and [[Argentina]]. Catholics in the [[United States of America]] are more numerous than any other single Church: as a result of massive immigration, mainly from countries like [[Italy]], [[Ireland]] and [[Germany]], their number grew from virtually nothing in 1790 to about a quarter of the total population by 1920, a proportion that remains today. Catholics are a majority in neighbouring [[Canada]], where there has been a strong historical presence of France and much immigration from Catholic countries. <br />
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In Asia, the [[Philippines]] (once a Spanish colony) and [[East Timor]] (a former Portuguese colony) have Catholic majorities, and most Christians in [[Lebanon]] are Roman Catholics, while a significant Catholic population has developed in [[South Korea]].<br />
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Catholicism has spread relatively recently to some parts of the world. There are now some 115 million in [[Africa]].<br />
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The number of Catholics in the world continues to increase, through population growth in developing countries and, to a lesser extent, spread to new areas. The increase between [[1978]] and [[2000]] was 288 million. [[Protestant]] [[evangelicals]] have succeeded in making inroads into parts of Latin America, but remain a small percentage of the population. In most industrialized countries, church attendance has decreased since the [[19th century]], though it remains higher than that of other "mainline" Churches.<br />
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== Criticisms ==<br />
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Over the centuries, the Roman Catholic Church has gathered criticisms for numerous reasons. (Some particular controversies are discussed in separate articles.)<br />
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[[Pope John Paul II]] acknowledged publicly that the Roman Catholic Church (and its members) has sometimes been involved in questionable activities, and asked God to forgive its sins, both in action and omission.<br />
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===Historical criticism===<br />
Historically, the Church's response to [[heresy]] through the [[Inquisition]] and its alleged association with [[witchhunt]]s have brought criticism. [[Pope John Paul II]] apologized for certain historic excesses in May 1995.<br />
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Itself an essentially non-democratic, highly centralized organization, it has been accused of supporting [[absolute monarchy]] and, later, [[Fascism]] and [[Falange|Falangism]]. <br />
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Though others have credited the Church for contributions to many of western society's fundamental principles of human rights, [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment philosophers]] perceived the Church's doctrines as superstitious and hindering the progress of civilization. Many thinkers and academics criticized it for opposing scientific advancement. The trial of [[Galileo Galilei]] is a famous example of the Church's advocacy of Ptolemaic [[geocentrism]]. [[Pope John Paul II]] also acknowledged this, and publicly apologized for the Church's actions on October 31, 1992. The Church has, however, made many contributions to philosophy, art, music, engineering and architecture.<br />
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== See also ==<br />
*[[:Category:Roman Catholic Church|Other articles on the Catholic Church]]<br />
*[[History_of_the_Roman_Catholic_Church|History of the Roman Catholic Church]]<br />
*[[Christianity]]<br />
*[[:Category:Roman_Catholic_Church_by_Country|Roman Catholic Church by Country]]<br />
*[[Catholic Worker Movement]]<br />
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== External links ==<br />
{{wikisourcecat}}<br />
* [http://www.vatican.va Vatican: the Holy See]<br />
* [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church] <br />
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ The Catholic Encyclopedia] Resource concerning Catholic history and doctrine as well as related matters of philosophy.<br />
* [http://www.catholic.com/ Catholic Answers] Catholic apologetics and evangelization organization in North America<br />
* [http://www.masstimes.org/ Mass Times] A directory of Mass times, parish locations, directions and phone numbers for traveling Catholics<br />
* [http://www.compasschurch.com/ Athens Church] Catholics visiting Athens are welcome to attend our service.<br />
* [http://www.cathworld.org/search CATHworld Search Engine] Resource for finding Catholic information and sites.<br />
* [http://catholicapologeticsofamerica.blogspot.com Catholic Apologetics of America] A large, award winning Catholic blog with several articles and links.<br />
* [http://www.stblogsparishhall.com Catholic Blogs and Resources]<br />
* [http://www.catholicculture.org/sites/sites.cfm Catholic Culture Sites Review] A categorized, reviewed, searchable collection of links to orthodox Roman Catholic links. Ratings for fidelity, resources and useability.<br />
*[http://www.aboutcatholics.com/ About Catholics] Catholic evangelization and information about specific beliefs<br />
* [http://www.trulyopendirectory.com/Religion_And_Spirituality_-_Christianity_-_Denominations_-_Catholicism Truly Open Directory] A categorized collection of links on Roman Catholicism<br />
* [http://www.catholicexchange.com/ Catholic Exchange] non-profit evangelist charity <br />
* [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/ Catholic Hierarchy] information on Catholic bishops and dioceses<br />
* [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/cardinals.htm The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church] information on the Cardinals of the Catholic Church<br />
* [http://CUF.org Catholics United for the Faith]<br />
* [http://ewtn.com EWTN] American Catholic television station, live streaming in English and Spanish. <br />
* [http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/ANNU2000.HTM Statistics on the Global Catholic population]<br />
* [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/augustine/a/faq-cc.html Frequently Asked Questions About the Catholic Church]<br />
* [http://catholic.tc/welcome.html Catholic Church in Providenciales, Grand Turk, South Caicos and North Caicos]<br />
* [http://catholicism.about.com Catholicism from About.com]<br />
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== Additional reading ==<br />
*''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' - English translation (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2000). ISBN 1574551108 [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm]<br />
*H. W. Crocker III, ''Triumph - The Power and the Glory of the Catholic Church: A 2,000-Year History'' (Prima Publishing, 2001). ISBN 0761529241<br />
*Eamon Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes'' (Yale Nota Bene, 2002). ISBN 0300091656<br />
*K. O. Johnson, ''Why Do Catholics Do That?'' (Ballantine, 1994). ISBN 0345397266<br />
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[[Category:Roman Catholic Church|*]]<br />
[[Category:Christian denominations]]<br />
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[[vi:Giáo h&#7897;i Công giáo Rôma]]</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=Roman_Catholic_Church&diff=4850Roman Catholic Church2005-07-09T07:22:40Z<p>Jachin: /* Liturgy */</p>
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<div>The '''Roman Catholic Church''' is the largest [[religious denomination|denomination]] of [[Christianity]] with over 1.1 billion members. It claims that it is both organizationally and doctrinally the original Christian Church, founded by [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]]. It also claims unbroken [[Apostolic Succession]] from [[St. Peter]] and the other [[Apostles]]. The [[Second Vatican Council]]'s Decree on the Church ''[[Lumen Gentium]]'', 8,[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html] declared that "the sole Church of Christ which in the Creed we profess to be one, holy, catholic and [[apostolic]]" has a concrete realization (the [[Latin]] term is "subsistit") "in the Catholic Church, which is governed by the successor of Peter and by the bishops in communion with him". "Successor of Peter" refers to the [[Pope]], currently [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]].<br />
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The Roman Catholic Church is also one of the largest and oldest continuously operating institutions in existence. (For history see [[History of the Roman Catholic Church]].)<br />
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It is a [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] organization in which ordained [[clergy]] are divided into the [[Holy Orders|orders]] of [[bishop]]s, [[priest]]s and [[deacon]]s. The world is divided into 2755 (at the end of 2004) [[diocese]]s, sometimes called bishoprics, each with a presiding bishop, responsible for the religious welfare of the faithful in his geographical area. The diocese of [[Rome]] has always been pre-eminent in the Church, because it is the seat of the bishop, known as the [[Pope]], who is considered by Catholics to be the successor of [[Saint Peter]], the chief of the [[Apostles]].<br />
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== Overview ==<br />
The Roman Catholic Church has a membership in every country in the [[World]].The Church sees itself as instituted by Jesus Christ for the salvation of [[soul]]s. It accomplishes this goal through teaching and through administration of [[sacraments]], including [[baptism]], the [[Eucharist]], and the forgiveness of sins, through which [[God]] grants [[grace]] to the believer. The teaching authority or [[magisterium]] of the Church bases its teachings on both [[Scripture]] and apostolic tradition. As well as ordained secular clergy, the Church encourages [[monasticism]], and has many orders of monks, friars and nuns who live in [[celibacy]], and devote their lives entirely to God. Other religious practices include [[fasting]], [[prayer]], [[penance]], [[pilgrimage]] and [[meditation]].<br />
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According to the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], the Church's first purpose is "to be the sacrament of the inner union of men with God." Thus the Church's "structure is totally ordered to the holiness of Christ's members." (''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' 775, 773)<br />
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== Terminology ==<br />
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Since the term "Catholic Church" has multiple meanings (see [[Catholicism]]), this article uses the term "Roman Catholic Church", to avoid confusion. The relationship between the [[Latin Rite|Western or Latin]] and the Eastern Churches within the Roman Catholic Church is dealt with below.<br />
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The choice of the phrase "Roman Catholic Church" should not be interpreted as opposition to the use, for this Church, of the simpler term "Catholic Church", which its members prefer. Indeed, the following extract from what St Augustine (AD [[354]]-[[430]]) wrote in AD [[397]] still holds, in the twenty-first century, for the actual practice, as distinct from the theoretical position, of those who take a divergent stance on the importance of the link with the "seat of the Apostle Peter": when speaking formally, they may say "Roman Catholic Church" or employ a similar limiting phrase, but in ordinary everyday conversation they accept and may even themselves use the term "Catholic Church". (Note that in Augustine&#8217;s time Christians applied the word "priest" to bishops, but not to the lower rank of clergy that are today called "priests" in English.)<br />
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:''In the Catholic Church ... there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the [[Apostle]] [[Peter]], to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15-19), down to the present episcopate. And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house.'' <br />
: &mdash; <i>Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental</i>, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith[http://www.ccel.org/pager.cgi?&file=fathers/NPNF1-04/augustine/bk_fundamental/bk1.html&from=CHAP4&up=]<br />
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== Liturgy ==<br />
The centre of the Roman Catholic Church's life is the [[liturgy|liturgical]] service of the [[Eucharist]] or Mass. On each Sunday and [[Holy Day of Obligation]] or on the evening before, Catholics have an obligation to participate in this celebration. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that the Mass is the un-bloody renewal of the Sacrifice of Calvary upon the altar, and the most perfect way to fulfill man's "four-fold duties" to God: adoration, thanksgiving, satisfaction for sins, and petition. For further information, see the article [[Mass (liturgy)]] and the references in that article.<br />
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Another especially important part of the Church's continual prayer is the [[Liturgy of the Hours]], whose particular characteristic is to consecrate the course of day and night. Lauds and [[Vespers]] (morning and evening prayer) are the principal hours. To these are added one or three intermediate prayer periods (traditionally called Terce, Sext and None), another prayer period to end the day ([[Compline]]), and a special period at no fixed time devoted chiefly to readings from the [[Bible|Scriptures]] and ecclesiastical writers. The prayers consist principally of the Psalter or [[Book of Psalms]]. Like the Mass, the Liturgy of the Hours has inspired great musical compositions. Earlier names for the Liturgy of the Hours were the Divine Office (a name still used as the title of one English translation), the Book of Hours, and the [[Breviary]]. All priests and religious leaders are obligated to pray the Liturgy of the Hours daily.<br />
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==Sacraments==<br />
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The Roman Catholic Church recognizes and administers seven [[Sacrament|sacraments]], which are considered gifts of Christ through the Church which give [[Divine grace]] to those who receive them. All grace comes from the [[Passion]] and [[Resurrection]] of Jesus, thus the sacraments are vehicles or channels of grace. The sacraments are listed here with reference to the section of the Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) that deals with each. <br />
* [[Baptism]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3G.HTM CCC 1213-1284]<br />
* [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3P.HTM CCC1285-1321]<br />
* [[Eucharist]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3W.HTM CCC 1322-1419]<br />
* [[Confession|Reconciliation and Penance (Confession)]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P46.HTM CCC 1422-1498]<br />
* [[Anointing of the Sick]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P4J.HTM CCC 1499-1532] <br />
* [[Holy Orders]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P4R.HTM CCC 1536-1600]<br />
* [[Holy Matrimony|Matrimony]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P50.HTM CCC 1601-1666]<br />
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== Doctrine ==<br />
In Roman Catholic theology, the Deposit of the Faith (all the dogmas and beliefs of the Church) comes from two sources: the [[Bible]] and Sacred Tradition. Roman Catholics believe that Jesus Christ transmitted the entire Catholic Faith to the apostles; a portion of this Faith was written down and is found in the Bible, and the other portion was orally handed down through the centuries. The Bible is the normal rule of faith ([[norma scriptura]]) and no Catholic belief or practice can contradict it. <br />
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The Roman Catholic Church attributes very high authority to 21 [[Ecumenical Councils]]: Nicaea I (325), Constantinople I (381), Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451), Constantinople II (553), Constantinople III (680-681), Nicaea II (787), Constantinople IV (869-870), Lateran I (1123), Lateran II (1139), Lateran III (1179), Lateran IV (1215), Lyons I (1245), Lyons II (1274), Vienne (1311-1312), Constance (1414-1418), Florence (1438-1445), Lateran V (1512-1517), Trent (1545-1563), Vatican I (1869-1870), Vatican II (1962-1965).<br />
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Of these, the Orthodox Churches of Byzantine tradition accept only the first seven, the family of "non-Chalcedonian" or "pre-Chalcedonian" Churches only the first three, and the Christians of Nestorian tradition only the first two.<br />
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Dialogue has shown that even where the break with one of these ancient Churches occurred as far back as the Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451), long before the break with Constantinople (1054), the few doctrinal differences often concern terminology, not substance.<br />
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Emblematic is the "Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East" [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/documents/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_11111994_assyrian-church_en.html] (note the use in an inter-Church document of "Catholic Church" rather than "Roman Catholic Church"), signed by "His Holiness John Paul II, Bishop of Rome and Pope of the Catholic Church, and His Holiness Mar Dinkha IV, Catholicos-Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East", on 11 November 1994. The division between the two Churches in question goes back to the disputes over the legitimacy of the expression "Mother of God" (as well as "Mother of Christ") for the [[Virgin Mary]] that came to a head at the Council of Ephesus in 431. The Common Declaration recalls that the Assyrian Church of the East prays the Virgin Mary as "the Mother of Christ our God and Saviour", and the Catholic tradition addresses the Virgin Mary as "the Mother of God" and also as "the Mother of Christ", fuller expressions by which each Church clearly acknowledges both the divinity and the humanity of Mary's son. The co-signers of the Common Declaration could thus state: "We both recognize the legitimacy and rightness of these expressions of the same faith and we both respect the preference of each Church in her liturgical life and piety."<br />
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Some, at least, of the most difficult questions in relations with the ancient Eastern Churches concern not so much doctrine as practical matters such as the concrete exercise of the claim to papal primacy and how to ensure that ecclesial union would not mean mere absorption of the smaller Churches by the Latin component of the much larger Roman Catholic Church (the most numerous single religious denomination in the world), and the stifling or abandonment of their own rich theological, liturgical and cultural heritage.<br />
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There are much greater differences with the doctrinal views of [[Protestantism|Protestants]], whom Roman Catholics feel have broken continuity with the past, and the true teachings of the [[apostles]], for the sake of what Protestants believe to be the true teaching of the [[apostles]]. But even with these groups, dialogue has on both sides clarified some misunderstandings of what the other believes.<br />
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===Magisterium===<br />
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The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], 85 states that authentic interpretation of the word of God is entrusted to the living Magisterium of the Church, namely the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter. Roman Catholic theology places the authoritative interpretation of scripture in the hands of the corporate judgment of the Church rather than the private judgment of the individual. <br />
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=== Social teaching === <br />
{{main|Catholic social teaching}}<br />
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The Church holds that the teachings of [[Jesus]] call on its members to act in a particular way in their dealings with the rest of humanity. While not endorsing any particular political agenda, the Church holds that this teaching applies in the public (political) realm, not only the private. Among these teachings, as they have been elaborated in recent decades by Catholic thinkers, Bishops' statements and Papal [[encyclical]]s, are that every person has a [[right to life]] and to a decent minimum standards of living, that humanity's use of God's creation implies a responsibility to protect the environment, and that the range of circumstances under which military force is permissible is extremely limited.<br />
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== Particular Churches within the single Roman Catholic Church ==<br />
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Unlike "families" or "communions" of Churches that see themselves as distinct Churches, the Church of those who are in full communion with the Pope considers itself a single Church, not a federation of Churches. It has authoritatively expressed this self-understanding in, for instance, the 28 May 1992 ''Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on some aspects of the Church understood as communion'', 9.[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_28051992_communionis-notio_en.html]<br />
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Accordingly, it has never adopted the usage of those who apply the term "Roman Catholic" to the Latin or Western Church alone, to the exclusion of the Eastern Churches that also are in full communion with the Bishop of Rome. When it employs the term "Roman Catholic Church", which it rarely does except in its relations with other Churches, it means the whole Church "governed by the successor of Peter and by the bishops in communion with him", wherever they live and whether they are of Eastern or Western tradition, since this Church has Rome as its centre. The only other meaning it would give to "Roman Catholic" is "a Catholic who lives in Rome", as a Catholic who lives in Warsaw could be called a Warsaw Catholic.<br />
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On the other hand, the Roman Catholic Church attaches great importance to the [[particular Church]]es within it, whose theological significance the Second Vatican Council highlighted. Two categories of particular Churches are distinguished.<br />
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=== Particular Churches or rites ===<br />
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The higher level of particular Churches is that of what the Second Vatican Council&#8217;s Decree on the Catholic Eastern Churches ''Orientalium Ecclesiarum'', 2[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19641121_orientalium-ecclesiarum_en.html] calls "particular Churches or rites". The long-established use of the term "rite" for these particular Churches is due to the central place that the Eucharist holds in the Roman Catholic Church, making each particular Church's liturgy its most noted distinguishing mark.<br />
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However, the word "rite" is used not only of particular Churches but also of liturgical rites. Examples are the [[Ambrosian rite]], the [[Mozarabic rite]] and the Roman rite, different liturgical rites used within the one Latin particular Church or Latin rite (singular). And terms such as "Byzantine rite" may refer to a liturgical rite used by more than one particular Church. To avoid the ambiguity to be found in the terms "particular Church" and "rite", the [[1983]] ''Code of Canon Law'' adopted instead the term "autonomous ritual Church" (in Latin, "Ecclesia ritualis sui iuris") for the same reality; and the [[1990]] ''Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches'' shortened this to "autonomous Church" (in Latin, "Ecclesia sui iuris").<br />
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The autonomy of each such Church, Eastern or Western, shows in its distinctive liturgy, canon law, theological tradition etc. The Latin or Western particular Church is governed by the ''Code of Canon Law'', while the ''Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches'' outlines the discipline that the Eastern particular Churches have in common.<br />
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The official yearly Vatican directory, ''Annuario Pontificio'' (Libreria Editrice Vaticana), gives the following list of rites (in the sense of particular Churches) within the Roman Catholic Church:<br />
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:A. Eastern rites of Alexandrian tradition: [[Coptic Catholic Church|Coptic]], Ethiopic (2).<br />
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:B. Eastern rites of Antiochian tradition: [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church|Malankara]], [[Maronite|Maronite]], [[Syrian Catholic Church|Syrian]] (3).<br />
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:C. Eastern rite of Armenian tradition: [[Armenian Catholic Church|Armenian Church]] (1).<br />
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:D. Eastern rites of Chaldaean or East-Syrian tradition: [[Chaldean]], [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church|Malabar]] (2).<br />
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:E. Eastern rites of Constantinopolitan or Byzantine tradition: [[Albanian Catholic Church|Albanian]], [[Belarusian Catholic Church|Belarusian]], Bulgarian, Greek, Greek-Melkite, Hungarian, Italo-Albanian, [[Romanian_Catholic_Church|Romanian]], Russian, [[Ruthenian Catholic Church|Ruthenian]], Slovak, [[Ukrainian_Greek_Catholic_Church|Ukrainian]] (12).<br />
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:F. [[Latin rite]] (1).<br />
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=== Particular or local Churches ===<br />
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In Catholic teaching, each diocese too is a local or particular Church: "A diocese is a section of the People of God entrusted to a bishop to be guided by him with the assistance of his clergy so that, loyal to its pastor and formed by him into one community in the Holy Spirit through the Gospel and the Eucharist, it constitutes one particular church in which the one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church of Christ is truly present and active" (Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Pastoral Office of Bishops in the Church ''Christus Dominus'', 11[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19651028_christus-dominus_en.html]).<br />
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===Theological significance===<br />
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The particular Churches within the Roman Catholic Church, whether rites or dioceses, are seen as not simply branches or sections of a larger body. Theologically, each is considered to be the embodiment in a particular place of the whole Roman Catholic Church. "It is in these and formed out of them that the one and unique Catholic Church exists" (Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Decree on the Church ''Lumen Gentium'', 23.[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html]).<br />
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== Organization ==<br />
=== The Pope ===<br />
What most obviously distinguishes the Roman Catholic Church from others is the link between its members and the Pope. The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], 882, quoting the Second Vatican Council&#8217;s document ''Lumen Gentium'', states: "The ''Pope'', Bishop of Rome and Peter&#8217;s successor, &#8216;is the perpetual and visible source and foundation of the unity both of the bishops and of the whole company of the faithful.&#8217;"[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm#I]<br />
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The Pope is referred to as the Vicar of Christ and the Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church. Applying to him the term "absolute" would, however, give a false impression: he is not free (the word "absolute" etymologically means "loosed") to issue decrees at whim. Instead, his charge forces on him awareness that he, even more than other bishops, is "tied", bound, by an obligation of strictest fidelity to the teaching transmitted down the centuries in increasingly developed form within the Catholic Church.<br />
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In certain circumstances, this papal primacy, which is referred to also as the Pope's Petrine authority or function, involves [[papal infallibility]], i.e. the [[dogmatic definition|definitive]] character of the teaching on matters of faith and morals that he propounds solemnly as visible head of the Church. In any normal circumstances, exercise of this authority will involve previous consultation of all Catholic bishops.<br />
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The ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', 891 says: "&#8217;The Roman Pontiff, head of the college of bishops, enjoys this infallibility in virtue of his office, when, as supreme pastor and teacher of all the faithful &#8211; who confirms his brethren in the faith &#8211; he proclaims by a definitive act a doctrine pertaining to faith or morals... The infallibility promised to the Church is also present in the body of bishops when, together with Peter&#8217;s successor, they exercise the supreme [[Magisterium]],&#8217; above all in an [[Ecumenical Council]]."[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm#I]<br />
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These are two ways, the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', 890 states, in which the pastors of the Church exercise the charism of infallibility with which Christ has endowed them for the purpose of guarding from deviation and decay the authentic faith of the definitive covenant that God has established in Christ with his people. In other words, they are two ways of ensuring that "the gates of Hell will not prevail" (Matthew 16:18) against the Church.<br />
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The Pope lives in [[Vatican City]], set up in [[1929]] as a minute, but symbolically important, independent state within the city of Rome. The body of officials that assist him in governance of the Church as a whole is known as the [[Roman curia]]. The term "[[Holy See]]" (i.e. of Rome) is generally used only of Pope and curia, because the Code of Canon Law, which concerns governance of the [[Latin Rite|Latin Church]] as a whole and not internal affairs of the see (diocese) of Rome itself, necessarily uses the term in this technical sense.<br />
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The present rules governing the election of a pope are found in the apostolic constitution ''Universi Dominici Gregis''.[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_22021996_universi-dominici-gregis_en.html] This deals with the powers, from the death of a pope to the announcement of his successor&#8217;s election, of the cardinals and the departments of the Roman curia; with the funeral arrangements for the dead pope; and with the place, time and manner of voting of the meeting of the cardinal electors, a meeting known as a [[conclave]]. This word is derived from Latin ''com-'' (together) and ''clavis'' (key) and refers to the locking away of the participants from outside influences, a measure that was introduced first as a means instead of forcing them to reach a decision.<br />
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A pope has the option of resigning. (The term "abdicate" is not usually used of popes.) The two best known cases are those of [[Pope Celestine V]] in 1294 (who, though the poet [[Dante Alighieri]] pictured him condemned to hell for this action, was canonized in [[1313]]) and [[Pope Gregory XII]], who resigned in [[1415]] to help end the [[Great Western Schism]].<br />
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===The Cardinals===<br />
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[[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] are appointed by the pope, generally from the ranks of his assistants in the curia and bishops of important sees, Latin or Eastern, throughout the world. <br />
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In [[1059]], the right of electing the Pope was assigned exclusively to the principal clergy of Rome and the bishops of the seven "suburbicarian" sees. Because of their resulting importance, the term "cardinal" (from Latin "cardo", meaning "hinge") was applied to them. In the twelfth century the practice of appointing ecclesiastics from outside Rome as cardinals began. Each cardinal is still assigned a church in Rome as his "titular church" or is linked with one of the [[suburbicarian diocese]]s. Of these sees, the [[Dean of the College of Cardinals]] holds that of Ostia while keeping his preceding link with one of the other six sees. Traditionally, there have thus been only six cardinals who hold the rank of [[Cardinal Bishop]], but when [[Eastern rite]] [[patriarch]]s are made cardinals, they too hold the rank of Cardinal Bishop, without being assigned a suburbicarian see, still less a church in Rome. The other cardinals have the rank either of [[Cardinal Priest]] or [[Cardinal Deacon]].<br />
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Only a limited number (which has been set at a maximum of 120) can be admitted to a conclave. The rule has therefore been made that cardinals who have celebrated their eightieth birthday before the pope&#8217;s death may not join the conclave. Accordingly, no more than 120 ecclesiastics below the age of eighty may normally be made cardinals, but there may be any number over that age. This has enabled the Pope to confer the cardinalatial dignity on particularly worthy older clergy, such as theologians, or priests who have suffered long imprisonment under dictatorial regimes.<br />
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The colour associated with the robes of cardinals is a crimson red, while the red of bishops who are not cardinals (and of Apostolic Protonotaries and Honorary Prelates) is really a Roman purple, and that of the lowest class of [[monsignor]]s (Chaplains of His Holiness) has a violet hue known as amarinthine red.<br />
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The hat and tassels of cardinals&#8217; armorial bearings are red; those of bishops and lesser prelates are green.<br />
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=== The Bishops ===<br />
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[[Bishops]] are the successors of the apostles in the governance of the Church. The Pope himself is a bishop and traditionally uses the title "Venerable Brother" when writing formally to another bishop. The typical role of a bishop is to provide pastoral governance for a diocese. Bishops who fulfill this function are known as diocesan ordinaries, because they have what canon law calls ordinary (i.e. not delegated) authority for a diocese. Other bishops may be appointed to assist them (auxiliary and coadjutor bishops) or to carry out a function in a broader field of service to the Church. Even when a bishop retires from his active service, he remains a bishop, since the ontological effect of the sacrament of holy orders is permanent.<br />
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On the other hand, titles such as [[archbishop]] or [[patriarch]] imply no ontological alteration, but are generally associated with special authority. Some of the Eastern Catholic Churches are headed by a patriarch. (A few bishops in the Latin Church also have the title of patriarch, but in their case the title is merely honorary.) Two Eastern Churches are headed by a major archbishop, a bishop who has practically all the powers of a patriarch, but without the title. Smaller Eastern Churches (consisting however of at least two dioceses or, to use the Eastern term, two eparchies) are headed by a metropolitan. Within the Latin Church too, dioceses are normally grouped together as ecclesiastical provinces, in which the bishop of a particular see has the title of metropolitan archbishop, with some very limited authority for the other dioceses, which are known as suffragan sees. However, almost all the authority of a metropolitan archbishop to intervene in case of necessity with regard to a suffragan see belongs, in the case of the metropolitan see itself, to the senior suffragan bishop. (In some Eastern Churches, the term "metropolitan bishop" corresponds instead to "diocesan ordinary" in the Latin Church; and an Anglican usage of "suffragan" corresponds to Catholic "auxiliary bishop.") The Latin-Church title of primate is now merely honorary.<br />
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Bishops of a country or region form an episcopal conference and meet periodically to discuss common problems. Decisions in certain fields, notably liturgy, fall within the exclusive competence of these conferences. But the decisions are binding on the individual bishops only if agreed to by at least two-thirds of the membership and confirmed by the Holy See.<br />
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=== Other clergy ===<br />
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Bishops are assisted by [[priest]]s and [[deacon]]s. [[parish|Parishes]], whether territorial or person-based, within a diocese are normally in the charge of a priest, known as the parish priest or the pastor. Dioceses too, though normally territorial, may be person-based (as, for instance, a military ordinariate).<br />
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The honorary title of [[Monsignor]] may be conferred by the Pope upon a diocesan priest (not a member of a religious institute) at the request of the priest's bishop. The title goes with any of the following three awards: <br />
* ''Chaplain of His Holiness'' (called Papal Chamberlain until the reform of 31 March 1969 &#8211; see <i>Acta Apostolicae Sedis</i> of that year, pages 334-340, or [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/instruction69.htm this site]), the lowest level, distinguished by purple buttons and trim on the black [[cassock]], with a purple sash. <br />
* ''Honorary Prelate'' (until 1969 called Domestic Prelate), the middle level, distinguished by red buttons and trim on the black cassock, with a purple sash, and by choir dress that includes a purple cassock. <br />
* ''Protonotary Apostolic'', the highest level, with the same dress as that of an Honorary Prelate, except that the non-obligatory purple silk cape known as a ''ferraiuolo'' may be worn also.<br />
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In the Latin Church only celibate men, as a rule, are ordained as priests, while the Eastern Catholic Churches also ordain married men. Both sides maintain the tradition of holding it impossible for a priest to marry. Even a married priest whose wife dies may not then marry.<br />
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To explain this tradition, one theory[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cclergy/documents/rc_con_cclergy_doc_01011993_chisto_en.html] holds that, in early practice, married men who became priests &#8211; they were often older men, "elders" &#8211; were expected to refrain permanently from sexual relations with their wives, perhaps because they, as priests representing Christ, were treated as the Church's spouse. When at a later stage it was clear that not all did refrain, the Western reaction was to ordain only celibates, while the Eastern Churches relaxed the rule, so that Eastern Orthodox Churches now require their married clergy to abstain from sexual relations only for a limited period before celebrating the Eucharist. The Church in Persia, which in the fifth century became separated from the Church described as Orthodox or Catholic, decided at the end of that century to abolish the rule of continence and allow priests to marry, but recognized that it was abrogating an ancient tradition. The Coptic and Ethiopic Churches, whose separation came slightly later, allow deacons (who are ordained when they are boys) to marry, but not priests. The theory in question, if true, helps explain why all the ancient Christian Churches of both East and West, with the one exception mentioned, exclude marriage after priestly ordination, and why all reserve the episcopate (seen as a fuller form of priesthood than the presbyterate) for the celibate.<br />
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Since the [[Second Vatican Council]], the Latin Church admits married men of mature age to ordination as deacons, but not if they intend to advance to priestly ordination. Ordination even to the diaconate is an impediment to a later marriage, though special dispensation can be received for remarriage under extenuating circumstances.<br />
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The Roman Catholic Church and the other ancient Christian Churches see priestly ordination as a [[sacrament]] effecting an ontological change, not as the deputizing of someone to perform a function or as the admission of someone to a profession such as that of medicine or law. They also consider that priestly ordination can be conferred only on males. In the face of continued questioning, Pope John Paul II felt obliged to confirm the existing teaching that the Church is not empowered to change this practice: "In order that all doubt may be removed regarding a matter of great importance, a matter which pertains to the Church's divine constitution itself, in virtue of my ministry of confirming the brethren (cf. [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 22:32) I declare that the Church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgment is to be definitively held by all the Church's faithful."<br />
(John Paul II, ''Ordinatio Sacerdotis'' [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_22051994_ordinatio-sacerdotalis_en.html] )<br />
The Roman Catholic Church thus holds this teaching as irrevocable and as having the character of [[Infallibility of the Church|infallibility]], not in virtue of the apostolic letter ''Ordinatio Sacerdotalis'' itself, from which this quotation is taken and which states this only implicitly, but because the teaching "has been preserved by the constant and universal Tradition of the Church and firmly taught by the Magisterium."<br />
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What in the Latin Church were called minor orders have, since the Second Vatican Council, been reduced to two, lectors and [[acolyte|acolytes]]. These are now called "instituted ministries", and those on whom they are conferred are no longer classified as members of the clergy.<br />
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=== Public consecrated life ===<br />
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Within the Catholic Church, there are those who publicly undertake to observe as obligations what the Christian gospel proposes as counsels rather than commands. Some Catholics, in particular hermits and consecrated virgins, do so individually. Others group together to form what are called religious institutes. The term "[[Catholic order|religious order]]", which in its strict sense refers only to a subset of these institutes, is commonly used also of all of them.<br />
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There is a great variety of religious institutes. Some have only lay members, others have both priests and lay members, others still may have only priests and men preparing for priesthood. Some date from the earliest centuries of Christianity, others spring up every year.<br />
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These groups normally begin as an association formed, with the consent of the diocesan bishop, for the purpose of becoming a religious institute. After time has provided proof of the rectitude, seriousness and durability of the group, the bishop, after consulting the Holy See, may formally set it up as a religious institute, for which he is responsible. Later, when it has grown in numbers, perhaps extending also into other dioceses, and further proved its worth, then the Holy See may grant it formal approval, bringing it under the Holy See's responsibility, rather than that of the bishops of the dioceses where it is present. For the good of institutes and to provide for the needs of their apostolate, the Holy See can exempt them from the governance of the local bishops, bringing them entirely under the authority of the Holy See itself or of someone else.<br />
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The oldest existing forms of such institutes are those of [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, such as the [[Benedictines]] of the West and the [[Basilians]] of the East, living in monasteries. Around the thirteenth century Mendicant Orders, such as of those of the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] and [[Franciscan]]s, arose. Unlike the monks and nuns, the members of these orders had their convents not in the country but in the towns, which were becoming increasingly important. One of the best known of those that appeared still later is the [[Society of Jesus]], which today is the religious institute with the largest number of members (known as Jesuits).<br />
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Typically, members of religious institutes take vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. For some, the vow of stability in a monastery or to live according to a particular written rule is considered to include these vows. Other institutes add further vows. People wishing to join a religious institute may spend some time as postulants, then as novices, and then one or more periods with temporary vows, before committing themselves fully with perpetual vows.<br />
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Unless they are priests, male members of religious institutes are usually referred to as "Brother", while in female institutes most members are called "Sister", but the superior of the whole institute, or even of a single community, is usually called "Mother" or "[[Mother Superior]]".<br />
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Secular institutes are another form of consecrated life. They differ from religious institutes in that their members live their lives in the ordinary conditions of the world, either alone, in their families or in fraternal groups.<br />
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Somewhat similar are the societies of apostolic life, dedicated to pursuit of an apostolic purpose, such as educational or missionary work. They do not take religious vows, but live in common, striving for perfection through observing the "constitutions" of the society to which they belong.<br />
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== Worldwide distribution ==<br />
:''For the Roman Catholic Church regionally and by country see [[:Category:Roman Catholic Church by Country]] and [[:Category:Roman Catholic Church by region]]''<br />
<br />
The total number of Catholics in the world is over one billion. They are found in nearly every country, though they are more concentrated in the Americas and Europe. They currently make up 63% of the population of [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], 40% of [[Europe]], roughly 20% of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], and 3% of [[Asia]] [http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/ANNU2000.HTM]. <br />
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In [[Europe]], Catholic majorities are found in [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Croatia]], [[France]], [[Hungary]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Spain]]. [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Switzerland]], as well as [[Northern Ireland]], are about equally divided between Catholics and Protestants. In the [[Czech Republic]], Roman Catholics make up 39% of the population. Catholics are a significant minority in [[Britain]], where their faith underwent a revival in the [[19th Century|19th]] and early [[20th Century]] after three centuries of relentless persecution.<br />
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Nearly all [[Latin American]] countries have large Catholic majorities, among them being such heavyweights as [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], [[Colombia]], and [[Argentina]]. Catholics in the [[United States of America]] are more numerous than any other single Church: as a result of massive immigration, mainly from countries like [[Italy]], [[Ireland]] and [[Germany]], their number grew from virtually nothing in 1790 to about a quarter of the total population by 1920, a proportion that remains today. Catholics are a majority in neighbouring [[Canada]], where there has been a strong historical presence of France and much immigration from Catholic countries. <br />
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In Asia, the [[Philippines]] (once a Spanish colony) and [[East Timor]] (a former Portuguese colony) have Catholic majorities, and most Christians in [[Lebanon]] are Roman Catholics, while a significant Catholic population has developed in [[South Korea]].<br />
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Catholicism has spread relatively recently to some parts of the world. There are now some 115 million in [[Africa]].<br />
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The number of Catholics in the world continues to increase, through population growth in developing countries and, to a lesser extent, spread to new areas. The increase between [[1978]] and [[2000]] was 288 million. [[Protestant]] [[evangelicals]] have succeeded in making inroads into parts of Latin America, but remain a small percentage of the population. In most industrialized countries, church attendance has decreased since the [[19th century]], though it remains higher than that of other "mainline" Churches.<br />
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== Criticisms ==<br />
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Over the centuries, the Roman Catholic Church has gathered criticisms for numerous reasons. (Some particular controversies are discussed in separate articles.)<br />
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[[Pope John Paul II]] acknowledged publicly that the Roman Catholic Church (and its members) has sometimes been involved in questionable activities, and asked God to forgive its sins, both in action and omission.<br />
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===Historical criticism===<br />
Historically, the Church's response to [[heresy]] through the [[Inquisition]] and its alleged association with [[witchhunt]]s have brought criticism. [[Pope John Paul II]] apologized for certain historic excesses in May 1995.<br />
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Itself an essentially non-democratic, highly centralized organization, it has been accused of supporting [[absolute monarchy]] and, later, [[Fascism]] and [[Falange|Falangism]]. <br />
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Though others have credited the Church for contributions to many of western society's fundamental principles of human rights, [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment philosophers]] perceived the Church's doctrines as superstitious and hindering the progress of civilization. Many thinkers and academics criticized it for opposing scientific advancement. The trial of [[Galileo Galilei]] is a famous example of the Church's advocacy of Ptolemaic [[geocentrism]]. [[Pope John Paul II]] also acknowledged this, and publicly apologized for the Church's actions on October 31, 1992. The Church has, however, made many contributions to philosophy, art, music, engineering and architecture.<br />
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== See also ==<br />
*[[:Category:Roman Catholic Church|Other articles on the Catholic Church]]<br />
*[[History_of_the_Roman_Catholic_Church|History of the Roman Catholic Church]]<br />
*[[Christianity]]<br />
*[[:Category:Roman_Catholic_Church_by_Country|Roman Catholic Church by Country]]<br />
*[[Catholic Worker Movement]]<br />
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== External links ==<br />
{{wikisourcecat}}<br />
* [http://www.vatican.va Vatican: the Holy See]<br />
* [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church] <br />
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ The Catholic Encyclopedia] Resource concerning Catholic history and doctrine as well as related matters of philosophy.<br />
* [http://www.catholic.com/ Catholic Answers] Catholic apologetics and evangelization organization in North America<br />
* [http://www.masstimes.org/ Mass Times] A directory of Mass times, parish locations, directions and phone numbers for traveling Catholics<br />
* [http://www.compasschurch.com/ Athens Church] Catholics visiting Athens are welcome to attend our service.<br />
* [http://www.cathworld.org/search CATHworld Search Engine] Resource for finding Catholic information and sites.<br />
* [http://catholicapologeticsofamerica.blogspot.com Catholic Apologetics of America] A large, award winning Catholic blog with several articles and links.<br />
* [http://www.stblogsparishhall.com Catholic Blogs and Resources]<br />
* [http://www.catholicculture.org/sites/sites.cfm Catholic Culture Sites Review] A categorized, reviewed, searchable collection of links to orthodox Roman Catholic links. Ratings for fidelity, resources and useability.<br />
*[http://www.aboutcatholics.com/ About Catholics] Catholic evangelization and information about specific beliefs<br />
* [http://www.trulyopendirectory.com/Religion_And_Spirituality_-_Christianity_-_Denominations_-_Catholicism Truly Open Directory] A categorized collection of links on Roman Catholicism<br />
* [http://www.catholicexchange.com/ Catholic Exchange] non-profit evangelist charity <br />
* [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/ Catholic Hierarchy] information on Catholic bishops and dioceses<br />
* [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/cardinals.htm The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church] information on the Cardinals of the Catholic Church<br />
* [http://CUF.org Catholics United for the Faith]<br />
* [http://ewtn.com EWTN] American Catholic television station, live streaming in English and Spanish. <br />
* [http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/ANNU2000.HTM Statistics on the Global Catholic population]<br />
* [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/augustine/a/faq-cc.html Frequently Asked Questions About the Catholic Church]<br />
* [http://catholic.tc/welcome.html Catholic Church in Providenciales, Grand Turk, South Caicos and North Caicos]<br />
* [http://catholicism.about.com Catholicism from About.com]<br />
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== Additional reading ==<br />
*''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' - English translation (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2000). ISBN 1574551108 [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm]<br />
*H. W. Crocker III, ''Triumph - The Power and the Glory of the Catholic Church: A 2,000-Year History'' (Prima Publishing, 2001). ISBN 0761529241<br />
*Eamon Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes'' (Yale Nota Bene, 2002). ISBN 0300091656<br />
*K. O. Johnson, ''Why Do Catholics Do That?'' (Ballantine, 1994). ISBN 0345397266<br />
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[[Category:Christian denominations]]<br />
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[[vi:Giáo h&#7897;i Công giáo Rôma]]</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=Roman_Catholic_Church&diff=4849Roman Catholic Church2005-07-09T07:22:03Z<p>Jachin: </p>
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<div>The '''Roman Catholic Church''' is the largest [[religious denomination|denomination]] of [[Christianity]] with over 1.1 billion members. It claims that it is both organizationally and doctrinally the original Christian Church, founded by [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]]. It also claims unbroken [[Apostolic Succession]] from [[St. Peter]] and the other [[Apostles]]. The [[Second Vatican Council]]'s Decree on the Church ''[[Lumen Gentium]]'', 8,[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html] declared that "the sole Church of Christ which in the Creed we profess to be one, holy, catholic and [[apostolic]]" has a concrete realization (the [[Latin]] term is "subsistit") "in the Catholic Church, which is governed by the successor of Peter and by the bishops in communion with him". "Successor of Peter" refers to the [[Pope]], currently [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]].<br />
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The Roman Catholic Church is also one of the largest and oldest continuously operating institutions in existence. (For history see [[History of the Roman Catholic Church]].)<br />
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It is a [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] organization in which ordained [[clergy]] are divided into the [[Holy Orders|orders]] of [[bishop]]s, [[priest]]s and [[deacon]]s. The world is divided into 2755 (at the end of 2004) [[diocese]]s, sometimes called bishoprics, each with a presiding bishop, responsible for the religious welfare of the faithful in his geographical area. The diocese of [[Rome]] has always been pre-eminent in the Church, because it is the seat of the bishop, known as the [[Pope]], who is considered by Catholics to be the successor of [[Saint Peter]], the chief of the [[Apostles]].<br />
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== Overview ==<br />
The Roman Catholic Church has a membership in every country in the [[World]].The Church sees itself as instituted by Jesus Christ for the salvation of [[soul]]s. It accomplishes this goal through teaching and through administration of [[sacraments]], including [[baptism]], the [[Eucharist]], and the forgiveness of sins, through which [[God]] grants [[grace]] to the believer. The teaching authority or [[magisterium]] of the Church bases its teachings on both [[Scripture]] and apostolic tradition. As well as ordained secular clergy, the Church encourages [[monasticism]], and has many orders of monks, friars and nuns who live in [[celibacy]], and devote their lives entirely to God. Other religious practices include [[fasting]], [[prayer]], [[penance]], [[pilgrimage]] and [[meditation]].<br />
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According to the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], the Church's first purpose is "to be the sacrament of the inner union of men with God." Thus the Church's "structure is totally ordered to the holiness of Christ's members." (''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' 775, 773)<br />
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== Terminology ==<br />
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Since the term "Catholic Church" has multiple meanings (see [[Catholicism]]), this article uses the term "Roman Catholic Church", to avoid confusion. The relationship between the [[Latin Rite|Western or Latin]] and the Eastern Churches within the Roman Catholic Church is dealt with below.<br />
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The choice of the phrase "Roman Catholic Church" should not be interpreted as opposition to the use, for this Church, of the simpler term "Catholic Church", which its members prefer. Indeed, the following extract from what St Augustine (AD [[354]]-[[430]]) wrote in AD [[397]] still holds, in the twenty-first century, for the actual practice, as distinct from the theoretical position, of those who take a divergent stance on the importance of the link with the "seat of the Apostle Peter": when speaking formally, they may say "Roman Catholic Church" or employ a similar limiting phrase, but in ordinary everyday conversation they accept and may even themselves use the term "Catholic Church". (Note that in Augustine&#8217;s time Christians applied the word "priest" to bishops, but not to the lower rank of clergy that are today called "priests" in English.)<br />
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:''In the Catholic Church ... there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the [[Apostle]] [[Peter]], to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15-19), down to the present episcopate. And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house.'' <br />
: &mdash; <i>Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental</i>, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith[http://www.ccel.org/pager.cgi?&file=fathers/NPNF1-04/augustine/bk_fundamental/bk1.html&from=CHAP4&up=]<br />
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== Liturgy ==<br />
{{christianity}}<br />
The centre of the Roman Catholic Church's life is the [[liturgy|liturgical]] service of the [[Eucharist]] or Mass. On each Sunday and [[Holy Day of Obligation]] or on the evening before, Catholics have an obligation to participate in this celebration. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that the Mass is the un-bloody renewal of the Sacrifice of Calvary upon the altar, and the most perfect way to fulfill man's "four-fold duties" to God: adoration, thanksgiving, satisfaction for sins, and petition. For further information, see the article [[Mass (liturgy)]] and the references in that article.<br />
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Another especially important part of the Church's continual prayer is the [[Liturgy of the Hours]], whose particular characteristic is to consecrate the course of day and night. Lauds and [[Vespers]] (morning and evening prayer) are the principal hours. To these are added one or three intermediate prayer periods (traditionally called Terce, Sext and None), another prayer period to end the day ([[Compline]]), and a special period at no fixed time devoted chiefly to readings from the [[Bible|Scriptures]] and ecclesiastical writers. The prayers consist principally of the Psalter or [[Book of Psalms]]. Like the Mass, the Liturgy of the Hours has inspired great musical compositions. Earlier names for the Liturgy of the Hours were the Divine Office (a name still used as the title of one English translation), the Book of Hours, and the [[Breviary]]. All priests and religious leaders are obligated to pray the Liturgy of the Hours daily.<br />
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==Sacraments==<br />
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The Roman Catholic Church recognizes and administers seven [[Sacrament|sacraments]], which are considered gifts of Christ through the Church which give [[Divine grace]] to those who receive them. All grace comes from the [[Passion]] and [[Resurrection]] of Jesus, thus the sacraments are vehicles or channels of grace. The sacraments are listed here with reference to the section of the Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) that deals with each. <br />
* [[Baptism]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3G.HTM CCC 1213-1284]<br />
* [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3P.HTM CCC1285-1321]<br />
* [[Eucharist]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3W.HTM CCC 1322-1419]<br />
* [[Confession|Reconciliation and Penance (Confession)]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P46.HTM CCC 1422-1498]<br />
* [[Anointing of the Sick]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P4J.HTM CCC 1499-1532] <br />
* [[Holy Orders]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P4R.HTM CCC 1536-1600]<br />
* [[Holy Matrimony|Matrimony]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P50.HTM CCC 1601-1666]<br />
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== Doctrine ==<br />
In Roman Catholic theology, the Deposit of the Faith (all the dogmas and beliefs of the Church) comes from two sources: the [[Bible]] and Sacred Tradition. Roman Catholics believe that Jesus Christ transmitted the entire Catholic Faith to the apostles; a portion of this Faith was written down and is found in the Bible, and the other portion was orally handed down through the centuries. The Bible is the normal rule of faith ([[norma scriptura]]) and no Catholic belief or practice can contradict it. <br />
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The Roman Catholic Church attributes very high authority to 21 [[Ecumenical Councils]]: Nicaea I (325), Constantinople I (381), Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451), Constantinople II (553), Constantinople III (680-681), Nicaea II (787), Constantinople IV (869-870), Lateran I (1123), Lateran II (1139), Lateran III (1179), Lateran IV (1215), Lyons I (1245), Lyons II (1274), Vienne (1311-1312), Constance (1414-1418), Florence (1438-1445), Lateran V (1512-1517), Trent (1545-1563), Vatican I (1869-1870), Vatican II (1962-1965).<br />
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Of these, the Orthodox Churches of Byzantine tradition accept only the first seven, the family of "non-Chalcedonian" or "pre-Chalcedonian" Churches only the first three, and the Christians of Nestorian tradition only the first two.<br />
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Dialogue has shown that even where the break with one of these ancient Churches occurred as far back as the Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451), long before the break with Constantinople (1054), the few doctrinal differences often concern terminology, not substance.<br />
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Emblematic is the "Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East" [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/documents/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_11111994_assyrian-church_en.html] (note the use in an inter-Church document of "Catholic Church" rather than "Roman Catholic Church"), signed by "His Holiness John Paul II, Bishop of Rome and Pope of the Catholic Church, and His Holiness Mar Dinkha IV, Catholicos-Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East", on 11 November 1994. The division between the two Churches in question goes back to the disputes over the legitimacy of the expression "Mother of God" (as well as "Mother of Christ") for the [[Virgin Mary]] that came to a head at the Council of Ephesus in 431. The Common Declaration recalls that the Assyrian Church of the East prays the Virgin Mary as "the Mother of Christ our God and Saviour", and the Catholic tradition addresses the Virgin Mary as "the Mother of God" and also as "the Mother of Christ", fuller expressions by which each Church clearly acknowledges both the divinity and the humanity of Mary's son. The co-signers of the Common Declaration could thus state: "We both recognize the legitimacy and rightness of these expressions of the same faith and we both respect the preference of each Church in her liturgical life and piety."<br />
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Some, at least, of the most difficult questions in relations with the ancient Eastern Churches concern not so much doctrine as practical matters such as the concrete exercise of the claim to papal primacy and how to ensure that ecclesial union would not mean mere absorption of the smaller Churches by the Latin component of the much larger Roman Catholic Church (the most numerous single religious denomination in the world), and the stifling or abandonment of their own rich theological, liturgical and cultural heritage.<br />
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There are much greater differences with the doctrinal views of [[Protestantism|Protestants]], whom Roman Catholics feel have broken continuity with the past, and the true teachings of the [[apostles]], for the sake of what Protestants believe to be the true teaching of the [[apostles]]. But even with these groups, dialogue has on both sides clarified some misunderstandings of what the other believes.<br />
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===Magisterium===<br />
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The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], 85 states that authentic interpretation of the word of God is entrusted to the living Magisterium of the Church, namely the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter. Roman Catholic theology places the authoritative interpretation of scripture in the hands of the corporate judgment of the Church rather than the private judgment of the individual. <br />
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=== Social teaching === <br />
{{main|Catholic social teaching}}<br />
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The Church holds that the teachings of [[Jesus]] call on its members to act in a particular way in their dealings with the rest of humanity. While not endorsing any particular political agenda, the Church holds that this teaching applies in the public (political) realm, not only the private. Among these teachings, as they have been elaborated in recent decades by Catholic thinkers, Bishops' statements and Papal [[encyclical]]s, are that every person has a [[right to life]] and to a decent minimum standards of living, that humanity's use of God's creation implies a responsibility to protect the environment, and that the range of circumstances under which military force is permissible is extremely limited.<br />
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== Particular Churches within the single Roman Catholic Church ==<br />
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Unlike "families" or "communions" of Churches that see themselves as distinct Churches, the Church of those who are in full communion with the Pope considers itself a single Church, not a federation of Churches. It has authoritatively expressed this self-understanding in, for instance, the 28 May 1992 ''Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on some aspects of the Church understood as communion'', 9.[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_28051992_communionis-notio_en.html]<br />
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Accordingly, it has never adopted the usage of those who apply the term "Roman Catholic" to the Latin or Western Church alone, to the exclusion of the Eastern Churches that also are in full communion with the Bishop of Rome. When it employs the term "Roman Catholic Church", which it rarely does except in its relations with other Churches, it means the whole Church "governed by the successor of Peter and by the bishops in communion with him", wherever they live and whether they are of Eastern or Western tradition, since this Church has Rome as its centre. The only other meaning it would give to "Roman Catholic" is "a Catholic who lives in Rome", as a Catholic who lives in Warsaw could be called a Warsaw Catholic.<br />
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On the other hand, the Roman Catholic Church attaches great importance to the [[particular Church]]es within it, whose theological significance the Second Vatican Council highlighted. Two categories of particular Churches are distinguished.<br />
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=== Particular Churches or rites ===<br />
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The higher level of particular Churches is that of what the Second Vatican Council&#8217;s Decree on the Catholic Eastern Churches ''Orientalium Ecclesiarum'', 2[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19641121_orientalium-ecclesiarum_en.html] calls "particular Churches or rites". The long-established use of the term "rite" for these particular Churches is due to the central place that the Eucharist holds in the Roman Catholic Church, making each particular Church's liturgy its most noted distinguishing mark.<br />
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However, the word "rite" is used not only of particular Churches but also of liturgical rites. Examples are the [[Ambrosian rite]], the [[Mozarabic rite]] and the Roman rite, different liturgical rites used within the one Latin particular Church or Latin rite (singular). And terms such as "Byzantine rite" may refer to a liturgical rite used by more than one particular Church. To avoid the ambiguity to be found in the terms "particular Church" and "rite", the [[1983]] ''Code of Canon Law'' adopted instead the term "autonomous ritual Church" (in Latin, "Ecclesia ritualis sui iuris") for the same reality; and the [[1990]] ''Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches'' shortened this to "autonomous Church" (in Latin, "Ecclesia sui iuris").<br />
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The autonomy of each such Church, Eastern or Western, shows in its distinctive liturgy, canon law, theological tradition etc. The Latin or Western particular Church is governed by the ''Code of Canon Law'', while the ''Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches'' outlines the discipline that the Eastern particular Churches have in common.<br />
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The official yearly Vatican directory, ''Annuario Pontificio'' (Libreria Editrice Vaticana), gives the following list of rites (in the sense of particular Churches) within the Roman Catholic Church:<br />
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:A. Eastern rites of Alexandrian tradition: [[Coptic Catholic Church|Coptic]], Ethiopic (2).<br />
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:B. Eastern rites of Antiochian tradition: [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church|Malankara]], [[Maronite|Maronite]], [[Syrian Catholic Church|Syrian]] (3).<br />
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:C. Eastern rite of Armenian tradition: [[Armenian Catholic Church|Armenian Church]] (1).<br />
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:D. Eastern rites of Chaldaean or East-Syrian tradition: [[Chaldean]], [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church|Malabar]] (2).<br />
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:E. Eastern rites of Constantinopolitan or Byzantine tradition: [[Albanian Catholic Church|Albanian]], [[Belarusian Catholic Church|Belarusian]], Bulgarian, Greek, Greek-Melkite, Hungarian, Italo-Albanian, [[Romanian_Catholic_Church|Romanian]], Russian, [[Ruthenian Catholic Church|Ruthenian]], Slovak, [[Ukrainian_Greek_Catholic_Church|Ukrainian]] (12).<br />
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:F. [[Latin rite]] (1).<br />
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=== Particular or local Churches ===<br />
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In Catholic teaching, each diocese too is a local or particular Church: "A diocese is a section of the People of God entrusted to a bishop to be guided by him with the assistance of his clergy so that, loyal to its pastor and formed by him into one community in the Holy Spirit through the Gospel and the Eucharist, it constitutes one particular church in which the one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church of Christ is truly present and active" (Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Pastoral Office of Bishops in the Church ''Christus Dominus'', 11[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19651028_christus-dominus_en.html]).<br />
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===Theological significance===<br />
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The particular Churches within the Roman Catholic Church, whether rites or dioceses, are seen as not simply branches or sections of a larger body. Theologically, each is considered to be the embodiment in a particular place of the whole Roman Catholic Church. "It is in these and formed out of them that the one and unique Catholic Church exists" (Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Decree on the Church ''Lumen Gentium'', 23.[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html]).<br />
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== Organization ==<br />
=== The Pope ===<br />
What most obviously distinguishes the Roman Catholic Church from others is the link between its members and the Pope. The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], 882, quoting the Second Vatican Council&#8217;s document ''Lumen Gentium'', states: "The ''Pope'', Bishop of Rome and Peter&#8217;s successor, &#8216;is the perpetual and visible source and foundation of the unity both of the bishops and of the whole company of the faithful.&#8217;"[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm#I]<br />
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The Pope is referred to as the Vicar of Christ and the Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church. Applying to him the term "absolute" would, however, give a false impression: he is not free (the word "absolute" etymologically means "loosed") to issue decrees at whim. Instead, his charge forces on him awareness that he, even more than other bishops, is "tied", bound, by an obligation of strictest fidelity to the teaching transmitted down the centuries in increasingly developed form within the Catholic Church.<br />
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In certain circumstances, this papal primacy, which is referred to also as the Pope's Petrine authority or function, involves [[papal infallibility]], i.e. the [[dogmatic definition|definitive]] character of the teaching on matters of faith and morals that he propounds solemnly as visible head of the Church. In any normal circumstances, exercise of this authority will involve previous consultation of all Catholic bishops.<br />
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The ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', 891 says: "&#8217;The Roman Pontiff, head of the college of bishops, enjoys this infallibility in virtue of his office, when, as supreme pastor and teacher of all the faithful &#8211; who confirms his brethren in the faith &#8211; he proclaims by a definitive act a doctrine pertaining to faith or morals... The infallibility promised to the Church is also present in the body of bishops when, together with Peter&#8217;s successor, they exercise the supreme [[Magisterium]],&#8217; above all in an [[Ecumenical Council]]."[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm#I]<br />
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These are two ways, the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', 890 states, in which the pastors of the Church exercise the charism of infallibility with which Christ has endowed them for the purpose of guarding from deviation and decay the authentic faith of the definitive covenant that God has established in Christ with his people. In other words, they are two ways of ensuring that "the gates of Hell will not prevail" (Matthew 16:18) against the Church.<br />
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The Pope lives in [[Vatican City]], set up in [[1929]] as a minute, but symbolically important, independent state within the city of Rome. The body of officials that assist him in governance of the Church as a whole is known as the [[Roman curia]]. The term "[[Holy See]]" (i.e. of Rome) is generally used only of Pope and curia, because the Code of Canon Law, which concerns governance of the [[Latin Rite|Latin Church]] as a whole and not internal affairs of the see (diocese) of Rome itself, necessarily uses the term in this technical sense.<br />
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The present rules governing the election of a pope are found in the apostolic constitution ''Universi Dominici Gregis''.[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_22021996_universi-dominici-gregis_en.html] This deals with the powers, from the death of a pope to the announcement of his successor&#8217;s election, of the cardinals and the departments of the Roman curia; with the funeral arrangements for the dead pope; and with the place, time and manner of voting of the meeting of the cardinal electors, a meeting known as a [[conclave]]. This word is derived from Latin ''com-'' (together) and ''clavis'' (key) and refers to the locking away of the participants from outside influences, a measure that was introduced first as a means instead of forcing them to reach a decision.<br />
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A pope has the option of resigning. (The term "abdicate" is not usually used of popes.) The two best known cases are those of [[Pope Celestine V]] in 1294 (who, though the poet [[Dante Alighieri]] pictured him condemned to hell for this action, was canonized in [[1313]]) and [[Pope Gregory XII]], who resigned in [[1415]] to help end the [[Great Western Schism]].<br />
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===The Cardinals===<br />
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[[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] are appointed by the pope, generally from the ranks of his assistants in the curia and bishops of important sees, Latin or Eastern, throughout the world. <br />
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In [[1059]], the right of electing the Pope was assigned exclusively to the principal clergy of Rome and the bishops of the seven "suburbicarian" sees. Because of their resulting importance, the term "cardinal" (from Latin "cardo", meaning "hinge") was applied to them. In the twelfth century the practice of appointing ecclesiastics from outside Rome as cardinals began. Each cardinal is still assigned a church in Rome as his "titular church" or is linked with one of the [[suburbicarian diocese]]s. Of these sees, the [[Dean of the College of Cardinals]] holds that of Ostia while keeping his preceding link with one of the other six sees. Traditionally, there have thus been only six cardinals who hold the rank of [[Cardinal Bishop]], but when [[Eastern rite]] [[patriarch]]s are made cardinals, they too hold the rank of Cardinal Bishop, without being assigned a suburbicarian see, still less a church in Rome. The other cardinals have the rank either of [[Cardinal Priest]] or [[Cardinal Deacon]].<br />
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Only a limited number (which has been set at a maximum of 120) can be admitted to a conclave. The rule has therefore been made that cardinals who have celebrated their eightieth birthday before the pope&#8217;s death may not join the conclave. Accordingly, no more than 120 ecclesiastics below the age of eighty may normally be made cardinals, but there may be any number over that age. This has enabled the Pope to confer the cardinalatial dignity on particularly worthy older clergy, such as theologians, or priests who have suffered long imprisonment under dictatorial regimes.<br />
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The colour associated with the robes of cardinals is a crimson red, while the red of bishops who are not cardinals (and of Apostolic Protonotaries and Honorary Prelates) is really a Roman purple, and that of the lowest class of [[monsignor]]s (Chaplains of His Holiness) has a violet hue known as amarinthine red.<br />
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The hat and tassels of cardinals&#8217; armorial bearings are red; those of bishops and lesser prelates are green.<br />
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=== The Bishops ===<br />
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[[Bishops]] are the successors of the apostles in the governance of the Church. The Pope himself is a bishop and traditionally uses the title "Venerable Brother" when writing formally to another bishop. The typical role of a bishop is to provide pastoral governance for a diocese. Bishops who fulfill this function are known as diocesan ordinaries, because they have what canon law calls ordinary (i.e. not delegated) authority for a diocese. Other bishops may be appointed to assist them (auxiliary and coadjutor bishops) or to carry out a function in a broader field of service to the Church. Even when a bishop retires from his active service, he remains a bishop, since the ontological effect of the sacrament of holy orders is permanent.<br />
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On the other hand, titles such as [[archbishop]] or [[patriarch]] imply no ontological alteration, but are generally associated with special authority. Some of the Eastern Catholic Churches are headed by a patriarch. (A few bishops in the Latin Church also have the title of patriarch, but in their case the title is merely honorary.) Two Eastern Churches are headed by a major archbishop, a bishop who has practically all the powers of a patriarch, but without the title. Smaller Eastern Churches (consisting however of at least two dioceses or, to use the Eastern term, two eparchies) are headed by a metropolitan. Within the Latin Church too, dioceses are normally grouped together as ecclesiastical provinces, in which the bishop of a particular see has the title of metropolitan archbishop, with some very limited authority for the other dioceses, which are known as suffragan sees. However, almost all the authority of a metropolitan archbishop to intervene in case of necessity with regard to a suffragan see belongs, in the case of the metropolitan see itself, to the senior suffragan bishop. (In some Eastern Churches, the term "metropolitan bishop" corresponds instead to "diocesan ordinary" in the Latin Church; and an Anglican usage of "suffragan" corresponds to Catholic "auxiliary bishop.") The Latin-Church title of primate is now merely honorary.<br />
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Bishops of a country or region form an episcopal conference and meet periodically to discuss common problems. Decisions in certain fields, notably liturgy, fall within the exclusive competence of these conferences. But the decisions are binding on the individual bishops only if agreed to by at least two-thirds of the membership and confirmed by the Holy See.<br />
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=== Other clergy ===<br />
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Bishops are assisted by [[priest]]s and [[deacon]]s. [[parish|Parishes]], whether territorial or person-based, within a diocese are normally in the charge of a priest, known as the parish priest or the pastor. Dioceses too, though normally territorial, may be person-based (as, for instance, a military ordinariate).<br />
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The honorary title of [[Monsignor]] may be conferred by the Pope upon a diocesan priest (not a member of a religious institute) at the request of the priest's bishop. The title goes with any of the following three awards: <br />
* ''Chaplain of His Holiness'' (called Papal Chamberlain until the reform of 31 March 1969 &#8211; see <i>Acta Apostolicae Sedis</i> of that year, pages 334-340, or [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/instruction69.htm this site]), the lowest level, distinguished by purple buttons and trim on the black [[cassock]], with a purple sash. <br />
* ''Honorary Prelate'' (until 1969 called Domestic Prelate), the middle level, distinguished by red buttons and trim on the black cassock, with a purple sash, and by choir dress that includes a purple cassock. <br />
* ''Protonotary Apostolic'', the highest level, with the same dress as that of an Honorary Prelate, except that the non-obligatory purple silk cape known as a ''ferraiuolo'' may be worn also.<br />
<br />
In the Latin Church only celibate men, as a rule, are ordained as priests, while the Eastern Catholic Churches also ordain married men. Both sides maintain the tradition of holding it impossible for a priest to marry. Even a married priest whose wife dies may not then marry.<br />
<br />
To explain this tradition, one theory[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cclergy/documents/rc_con_cclergy_doc_01011993_chisto_en.html] holds that, in early practice, married men who became priests &#8211; they were often older men, "elders" &#8211; were expected to refrain permanently from sexual relations with their wives, perhaps because they, as priests representing Christ, were treated as the Church's spouse. When at a later stage it was clear that not all did refrain, the Western reaction was to ordain only celibates, while the Eastern Churches relaxed the rule, so that Eastern Orthodox Churches now require their married clergy to abstain from sexual relations only for a limited period before celebrating the Eucharist. The Church in Persia, which in the fifth century became separated from the Church described as Orthodox or Catholic, decided at the end of that century to abolish the rule of continence and allow priests to marry, but recognized that it was abrogating an ancient tradition. The Coptic and Ethiopic Churches, whose separation came slightly later, allow deacons (who are ordained when they are boys) to marry, but not priests. The theory in question, if true, helps explain why all the ancient Christian Churches of both East and West, with the one exception mentioned, exclude marriage after priestly ordination, and why all reserve the episcopate (seen as a fuller form of priesthood than the presbyterate) for the celibate.<br />
<br />
Since the [[Second Vatican Council]], the Latin Church admits married men of mature age to ordination as deacons, but not if they intend to advance to priestly ordination. Ordination even to the diaconate is an impediment to a later marriage, though special dispensation can be received for remarriage under extenuating circumstances.<br />
<br />
The Roman Catholic Church and the other ancient Christian Churches see priestly ordination as a [[sacrament]] effecting an ontological change, not as the deputizing of someone to perform a function or as the admission of someone to a profession such as that of medicine or law. They also consider that priestly ordination can be conferred only on males. In the face of continued questioning, Pope John Paul II felt obliged to confirm the existing teaching that the Church is not empowered to change this practice: "In order that all doubt may be removed regarding a matter of great importance, a matter which pertains to the Church's divine constitution itself, in virtue of my ministry of confirming the brethren (cf. [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 22:32) I declare that the Church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgment is to be definitively held by all the Church's faithful."<br />
(John Paul II, ''Ordinatio Sacerdotis'' [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_22051994_ordinatio-sacerdotalis_en.html] )<br />
The Roman Catholic Church thus holds this teaching as irrevocable and as having the character of [[Infallibility of the Church|infallibility]], not in virtue of the apostolic letter ''Ordinatio Sacerdotalis'' itself, from which this quotation is taken and which states this only implicitly, but because the teaching "has been preserved by the constant and universal Tradition of the Church and firmly taught by the Magisterium."<br />
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What in the Latin Church were called minor orders have, since the Second Vatican Council, been reduced to two, lectors and [[acolyte|acolytes]]. These are now called "instituted ministries", and those on whom they are conferred are no longer classified as members of the clergy.<br />
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=== Public consecrated life ===<br />
<br />
Within the Catholic Church, there are those who publicly undertake to observe as obligations what the Christian gospel proposes as counsels rather than commands. Some Catholics, in particular hermits and consecrated virgins, do so individually. Others group together to form what are called religious institutes. The term "[[Catholic order|religious order]]", which in its strict sense refers only to a subset of these institutes, is commonly used also of all of them.<br />
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There is a great variety of religious institutes. Some have only lay members, others have both priests and lay members, others still may have only priests and men preparing for priesthood. Some date from the earliest centuries of Christianity, others spring up every year.<br />
<br />
These groups normally begin as an association formed, with the consent of the diocesan bishop, for the purpose of becoming a religious institute. After time has provided proof of the rectitude, seriousness and durability of the group, the bishop, after consulting the Holy See, may formally set it up as a religious institute, for which he is responsible. Later, when it has grown in numbers, perhaps extending also into other dioceses, and further proved its worth, then the Holy See may grant it formal approval, bringing it under the Holy See's responsibility, rather than that of the bishops of the dioceses where it is present. For the good of institutes and to provide for the needs of their apostolate, the Holy See can exempt them from the governance of the local bishops, bringing them entirely under the authority of the Holy See itself or of someone else.<br />
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The oldest existing forms of such institutes are those of [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, such as the [[Benedictines]] of the West and the [[Basilians]] of the East, living in monasteries. Around the thirteenth century Mendicant Orders, such as of those of the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] and [[Franciscan]]s, arose. Unlike the monks and nuns, the members of these orders had their convents not in the country but in the towns, which were becoming increasingly important. One of the best known of those that appeared still later is the [[Society of Jesus]], which today is the religious institute with the largest number of members (known as Jesuits).<br />
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Typically, members of religious institutes take vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. For some, the vow of stability in a monastery or to live according to a particular written rule is considered to include these vows. Other institutes add further vows. People wishing to join a religious institute may spend some time as postulants, then as novices, and then one or more periods with temporary vows, before committing themselves fully with perpetual vows.<br />
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Unless they are priests, male members of religious institutes are usually referred to as "Brother", while in female institutes most members are called "Sister", but the superior of the whole institute, or even of a single community, is usually called "Mother" or "[[Mother Superior]]".<br />
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Secular institutes are another form of consecrated life. They differ from religious institutes in that their members live their lives in the ordinary conditions of the world, either alone, in their families or in fraternal groups.<br />
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Somewhat similar are the societies of apostolic life, dedicated to pursuit of an apostolic purpose, such as educational or missionary work. They do not take religious vows, but live in common, striving for perfection through observing the "constitutions" of the society to which they belong.<br />
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== Worldwide distribution ==<br />
:''For the Roman Catholic Church regionally and by country see [[:Category:Roman Catholic Church by Country]] and [[:Category:Roman Catholic Church by region]]''<br />
<br />
The total number of Catholics in the world is over one billion. They are found in nearly every country, though they are more concentrated in the Americas and Europe. They currently make up 63% of the population of [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], 40% of [[Europe]], roughly 20% of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], and 3% of [[Asia]] [http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/ANNU2000.HTM]. <br />
<br />
In [[Europe]], Catholic majorities are found in [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Croatia]], [[France]], [[Hungary]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Spain]]. [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Switzerland]], as well as [[Northern Ireland]], are about equally divided between Catholics and Protestants. In the [[Czech Republic]], Roman Catholics make up 39% of the population. Catholics are a significant minority in [[Britain]], where their faith underwent a revival in the [[19th Century|19th]] and early [[20th Century]] after three centuries of relentless persecution.<br />
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Nearly all [[Latin American]] countries have large Catholic majorities, among them being such heavyweights as [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], [[Colombia]], and [[Argentina]]. Catholics in the [[United States of America]] are more numerous than any other single Church: as a result of massive immigration, mainly from countries like [[Italy]], [[Ireland]] and [[Germany]], their number grew from virtually nothing in 1790 to about a quarter of the total population by 1920, a proportion that remains today. Catholics are a majority in neighbouring [[Canada]], where there has been a strong historical presence of France and much immigration from Catholic countries. <br />
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In Asia, the [[Philippines]] (once a Spanish colony) and [[East Timor]] (a former Portuguese colony) have Catholic majorities, and most Christians in [[Lebanon]] are Roman Catholics, while a significant Catholic population has developed in [[South Korea]].<br />
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Catholicism has spread relatively recently to some parts of the world. There are now some 115 million in [[Africa]].<br />
<br />
The number of Catholics in the world continues to increase, through population growth in developing countries and, to a lesser extent, spread to new areas. The increase between [[1978]] and [[2000]] was 288 million. [[Protestant]] [[evangelicals]] have succeeded in making inroads into parts of Latin America, but remain a small percentage of the population. In most industrialized countries, church attendance has decreased since the [[19th century]], though it remains higher than that of other "mainline" Churches.<br />
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== Criticisms ==<br />
<br />
Over the centuries, the Roman Catholic Church has gathered criticisms for numerous reasons. (Some particular controversies are discussed in separate articles.)<br />
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[[Pope John Paul II]] acknowledged publicly that the Roman Catholic Church (and its members) has sometimes been involved in questionable activities, and asked God to forgive its sins, both in action and omission.<br />
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===Historical criticism===<br />
Historically, the Church's response to [[heresy]] through the [[Inquisition]] and its alleged association with [[witchhunt]]s have brought criticism. [[Pope John Paul II]] apologized for certain historic excesses in May 1995.<br />
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Itself an essentially non-democratic, highly centralized organization, it has been accused of supporting [[absolute monarchy]] and, later, [[Fascism]] and [[Falange|Falangism]]. <br />
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Though others have credited the Church for contributions to many of western society's fundamental principles of human rights, [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment philosophers]] perceived the Church's doctrines as superstitious and hindering the progress of civilization. Many thinkers and academics criticized it for opposing scientific advancement. The trial of [[Galileo Galilei]] is a famous example of the Church's advocacy of Ptolemaic [[geocentrism]]. [[Pope John Paul II]] also acknowledged this, and publicly apologized for the Church's actions on October 31, 1992. The Church has, however, made many contributions to philosophy, art, music, engineering and architecture.<br />
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== See also ==<br />
*[[:Category:Roman Catholic Church|Other articles on the Catholic Church]]<br />
*[[History_of_the_Roman_Catholic_Church|History of the Roman Catholic Church]]<br />
*[[Christianity]]<br />
*[[:Category:Roman_Catholic_Church_by_Country|Roman Catholic Church by Country]]<br />
*[[Catholic Worker Movement]]<br />
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== External links ==<br />
{{wikisourcecat}}<br />
* [http://www.vatican.va Vatican: the Holy See]<br />
* [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church] <br />
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ The Catholic Encyclopedia] Resource concerning Catholic history and doctrine as well as related matters of philosophy.<br />
* [http://www.catholic.com/ Catholic Answers] Catholic apologetics and evangelization organization in North America<br />
* [http://www.masstimes.org/ Mass Times] A directory of Mass times, parish locations, directions and phone numbers for traveling Catholics<br />
* [http://www.compasschurch.com/ Athens Church] Catholics visiting Athens are welcome to attend our service.<br />
* [http://www.cathworld.org/search CATHworld Search Engine] Resource for finding Catholic information and sites.<br />
* [http://catholicapologeticsofamerica.blogspot.com Catholic Apologetics of America] A large, award winning Catholic blog with several articles and links.<br />
* [http://www.stblogsparishhall.com Catholic Blogs and Resources]<br />
* [http://www.catholicculture.org/sites/sites.cfm Catholic Culture Sites Review] A categorized, reviewed, searchable collection of links to orthodox Roman Catholic links. Ratings for fidelity, resources and useability.<br />
*[http://www.aboutcatholics.com/ About Catholics] Catholic evangelization and information about specific beliefs<br />
* [http://www.trulyopendirectory.com/Religion_And_Spirituality_-_Christianity_-_Denominations_-_Catholicism Truly Open Directory] A categorized collection of links on Roman Catholicism<br />
* [http://www.catholicexchange.com/ Catholic Exchange] non-profit evangelist charity <br />
* [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/ Catholic Hierarchy] information on Catholic bishops and dioceses<br />
* [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/cardinals.htm The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church] information on the Cardinals of the Catholic Church<br />
* [http://CUF.org Catholics United for the Faith]<br />
* [http://ewtn.com EWTN] American Catholic television station, live streaming in English and Spanish. <br />
* [http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/ANNU2000.HTM Statistics on the Global Catholic population]<br />
* [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/augustine/a/faq-cc.html Frequently Asked Questions About the Catholic Church]<br />
* [http://catholic.tc/welcome.html Catholic Church in Providenciales, Grand Turk, South Caicos and North Caicos]<br />
* [http://catholicism.about.com Catholicism from About.com]<br />
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== Additional reading ==<br />
*''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' - English translation (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2000). ISBN 1574551108 [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm]<br />
*H. W. Crocker III, ''Triumph - The Power and the Glory of the Catholic Church: A 2,000-Year History'' (Prima Publishing, 2001). ISBN 0761529241<br />
*Eamon Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes'' (Yale Nota Bene, 2002). ISBN 0300091656<br />
*K. O. Johnson, ''Why Do Catholics Do That?'' (Ballantine, 1994). ISBN 0345397266<br />
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[[Category:Roman Catholic Church|*]]<br />
[[Category:Christian denominations]]<br />
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[[vi:Giáo h&#7897;i Công giáo Rôma]]</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=Roman_Catholic_Church&diff=4848Roman Catholic Church2005-07-09T07:20:24Z<p>Jachin: Creation of Article.</p>
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<div>The '''Roman Catholic Church''' is the largest [[religious denomination|denomination]] of [[Christianity]] with over 1.1 billion members. It claims that it is both organizationally and doctrinally the original Christian Church, founded by [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]]. It also claims unbroken [[Apostolic Succession]] from [[St. Peter]] and the other [[Apostles]]. The [[Second Vatican Council]]'s Decree on the Church ''[[Lumen Gentium]]'', 8,[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html] declared that "the sole Church of Christ which in the Creed we profess to be one, holy, catholic and [[apostolic]]" has a concrete realization (the [[Latin]] term is "subsistit") "in the Catholic Church, which is governed by the successor of Peter and by the bishops in communion with him". "Successor of Peter" refers to the [[Pope]], currently [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]].<br />
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The Roman Catholic Church is also one of the largest and oldest continuously operating institutions in existence. (For history see [[History of the Roman Catholic Church]].)<br />
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It is a [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] organization in which ordained [[clergy]] are divided into the [[Holy Orders|orders]] of [[bishop]]s, [[priest]]s and [[deacon]]s. The world is divided into 2755 (at the end of 2004) [[diocese]]s, sometimes called bishoprics, each with a presiding bishop, responsible for the religious welfare of the faithful in his geographical area. The diocese of [[Rome]] has always been pre-eminent in the Church, because it is the seat of the bishop, known as the [[Pope]], who is considered by Catholics to be the successor of [[Saint Peter]], the chief of the [[Apostles]].<br />
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[[Image:San Pietro Basilica.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Saint Peter's Basilica]] in [[Holy See|Rome]]. The statue in the foreground is of [[Saint Peter]], held by the Catholic Church to be the first [[Pope]].]]<br />
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== Overview ==<br />
[[Image:Popebenedictxvi firsttimeonthrone.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Benedict XVI, like all popes, is considered by Roman Catholics as the Vicar of Christ and therefore leader of all Christendom.]]<br />
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The Roman Catholic Church has a membership in every country in the [[World]].The Church sees itself as instituted by Jesus Christ for the salvation of [[soul]]s. It accomplishes this goal through teaching and through administration of [[sacraments]], including [[baptism]], the [[Eucharist]], and the forgiveness of sins, through which [[God]] grants [[grace]] to the believer. The teaching authority or [[magisterium]] of the Church bases its teachings on both [[Scripture]] and apostolic tradition. As well as ordained secular clergy, the Church encourages [[monasticism]], and has many orders of monks, friars and nuns who live in [[celibacy]], and devote their lives entirely to God. Other religious practices include [[fasting]], [[prayer]], [[penance]], [[pilgrimage]] and [[meditation]].<br />
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According to the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], the Church's first purpose is "to be the sacrament of the inner union of men with God." Thus the Church's "structure is totally ordered to the holiness of Christ's members." (''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' 775, 773)<br />
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== Terminology ==<br />
<br />
Since the term "Catholic Church" has multiple meanings (see [[Catholicism]]), this article uses the term "Roman Catholic Church", to avoid confusion. The relationship between the [[Latin Rite|Western or Latin]] and the Eastern Churches within the Roman Catholic Church is dealt with below.<br />
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The choice of the phrase "Roman Catholic Church" should not be interpreted as opposition to the use, for this Church, of the simpler term "Catholic Church", which its members prefer. Indeed, the following extract from what St Augustine (AD [[354]]-[[430]]) wrote in AD [[397]] still holds, in the twenty-first century, for the actual practice, as distinct from the theoretical position, of those who take a divergent stance on the importance of the link with the "seat of the Apostle Peter": when speaking formally, they may say "Roman Catholic Church" or employ a similar limiting phrase, but in ordinary everyday conversation they accept and may even themselves use the term "Catholic Church". (Note that in Augustine&#8217;s time Christians applied the word "priest" to bishops, but not to the lower rank of clergy that are today called "priests" in English.)<br />
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:''In the Catholic Church ... there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the [[Apostle]] [[Peter]], to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15-19), down to the present episcopate. And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house.'' <br />
: &mdash; <i>Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental</i>, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith[http://www.ccel.org/pager.cgi?&file=fathers/NPNF1-04/augustine/bk_fundamental/bk1.html&from=CHAP4&up=]<br />
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== Liturgy ==<br />
{{christianity}}<br />
The centre of the Roman Catholic Church's life is the [[liturgy|liturgical]] service of the [[Eucharist]] or Mass. On each Sunday and [[Holy Day of Obligation]] or on the evening before, Catholics have an obligation to participate in this celebration. The Roman Catholic Church teaches that the Mass is the un-bloody renewal of the Sacrifice of Calvary upon the altar, and the most perfect way to fulfill man's "four-fold duties" to God: adoration, thanksgiving, satisfaction for sins, and petition. For further information, see the article [[Mass (liturgy)]] and the references in that article.<br />
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Another especially important part of the Church's continual prayer is the [[Liturgy of the Hours]], whose particular characteristic is to consecrate the course of day and night. Lauds and [[Vespers]] (morning and evening prayer) are the principal hours. To these are added one or three intermediate prayer periods (traditionally called Terce, Sext and None), another prayer period to end the day ([[Compline]]), and a special period at no fixed time devoted chiefly to readings from the [[Bible|Scriptures]] and ecclesiastical writers. The prayers consist principally of the Psalter or [[Book of Psalms]]. Like the Mass, the Liturgy of the Hours has inspired great musical compositions. Earlier names for the Liturgy of the Hours were the Divine Office (a name still used as the title of one English translation), the Book of Hours, and the [[Breviary]]. All priests and religious leaders are obligated to pray the Liturgy of the Hours daily.<br />
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==Sacraments==<br />
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The Roman Catholic Church recognizes and administers seven [[Sacrament|sacraments]], which are considered gifts of Christ through the Church which give [[Divine grace]] to those who receive them. All grace comes from the [[Passion]] and [[Resurrection]] of Jesus, thus the sacraments are vehicles or channels of grace. The sacraments are listed here with reference to the section of the Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) that deals with each. <br />
* [[Baptism]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3G.HTM CCC 1213-1284]<br />
* [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3P.HTM CCC1285-1321]<br />
* [[Eucharist]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3W.HTM CCC 1322-1419]<br />
* [[Confession|Reconciliation and Penance (Confession)]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P46.HTM CCC 1422-1498]<br />
* [[Anointing of the Sick]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P4J.HTM CCC 1499-1532] <br />
* [[Holy Orders]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P4R.HTM CCC 1536-1600]<br />
* [[Holy Matrimony|Matrimony]]: [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P50.HTM CCC 1601-1666]<br />
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== Doctrine ==<br />
[[Image:Small crucifix.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Crucifix, bearing the image of Jesus suffering on a cross, often serves as a symbol of the Roman Catholic Church.]] <br />
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In Roman Catholic theology, the Deposit of the Faith (all the dogmas and beliefs of the Church) comes from two sources: the [[Bible]] and Sacred Tradition. Roman Catholics believe that Jesus Christ transmitted the entire Catholic Faith to the apostles; a portion of this Faith was written down and is found in the Bible, and the other portion was orally handed down through the centuries. The Bible is the normal rule of faith ([[norma scriptura]]) and no Catholic belief or practice can contradict it. <br />
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The Roman Catholic Church attributes very high authority to 21 [[Ecumenical Councils]]: Nicaea I (325), Constantinople I (381), Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451), Constantinople II (553), Constantinople III (680-681), Nicaea II (787), Constantinople IV (869-870), Lateran I (1123), Lateran II (1139), Lateran III (1179), Lateran IV (1215), Lyons I (1245), Lyons II (1274), Vienne (1311-1312), Constance (1414-1418), Florence (1438-1445), Lateran V (1512-1517), Trent (1545-1563), Vatican I (1869-1870), Vatican II (1962-1965).<br />
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Of these, the Orthodox Churches of Byzantine tradition accept only the first seven, the family of "non-Chalcedonian" or "pre-Chalcedonian" Churches only the first three, and the Christians of Nestorian tradition only the first two.<br />
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Dialogue has shown that even where the break with one of these ancient Churches occurred as far back as the Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451), long before the break with Constantinople (1054), the few doctrinal differences often concern terminology, not substance.<br />
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Emblematic is the "Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East" [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/documents/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_11111994_assyrian-church_en.html] (note the use in an inter-Church document of "Catholic Church" rather than "Roman Catholic Church"), signed by "His Holiness John Paul II, Bishop of Rome and Pope of the Catholic Church, and His Holiness Mar Dinkha IV, Catholicos-Patriarch of the Assyrian Church of the East", on 11 November 1994. The division between the two Churches in question goes back to the disputes over the legitimacy of the expression "Mother of God" (as well as "Mother of Christ") for the [[Virgin Mary]] that came to a head at the Council of Ephesus in 431. The Common Declaration recalls that the Assyrian Church of the East prays the Virgin Mary as "the Mother of Christ our God and Saviour", and the Catholic tradition addresses the Virgin Mary as "the Mother of God" and also as "the Mother of Christ", fuller expressions by which each Church clearly acknowledges both the divinity and the humanity of Mary's son. The co-signers of the Common Declaration could thus state: "We both recognize the legitimacy and rightness of these expressions of the same faith and we both respect the preference of each Church in her liturgical life and piety."<br />
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Some, at least, of the most difficult questions in relations with the ancient Eastern Churches concern not so much doctrine as practical matters such as the concrete exercise of the claim to papal primacy and how to ensure that ecclesial union would not mean mere absorption of the smaller Churches by the Latin component of the much larger Roman Catholic Church (the most numerous single religious denomination in the world), and the stifling or abandonment of their own rich theological, liturgical and cultural heritage.<br />
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There are much greater differences with the doctrinal views of [[Protestantism|Protestants]], whom Roman Catholics feel have broken continuity with the past, and the true teachings of the [[apostles]], for the sake of what Protestants believe to be the true teaching of the [[apostles]]. But even with these groups, dialogue has on both sides clarified some misunderstandings of what the other believes.<br />
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===Magisterium===<br />
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The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], 85 states that authentic interpretation of the word of God is entrusted to the living Magisterium of the Church, namely the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter. Roman Catholic theology places the authoritative interpretation of scripture in the hands of the corporate judgment of the Church rather than the private judgment of the individual. <br />
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=== Social teaching === <br />
{{main|Catholic social teaching}}<br />
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The Church holds that the teachings of [[Jesus]] call on its members to act in a particular way in their dealings with the rest of humanity. While not endorsing any particular political agenda, the Church holds that this teaching applies in the public (political) realm, not only the private. Among these teachings, as they have been elaborated in recent decades by Catholic thinkers, Bishops' statements and Papal [[encyclical]]s, are that every person has a [[right to life]] and to a decent minimum standards of living, that humanity's use of God's creation implies a responsibility to protect the environment, and that the range of circumstances under which military force is permissible is extremely limited.<br />
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== Particular Churches within the single Roman Catholic Church ==<br />
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Unlike "families" or "communions" of Churches that see themselves as distinct Churches, the Church of those who are in full communion with the Pope considers itself a single Church, not a federation of Churches. It has authoritatively expressed this self-understanding in, for instance, the 28 May 1992 ''Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on some aspects of the Church understood as communion'', 9.[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_28051992_communionis-notio_en.html]<br />
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Accordingly, it has never adopted the usage of those who apply the term "Roman Catholic" to the Latin or Western Church alone, to the exclusion of the Eastern Churches that also are in full communion with the Bishop of Rome. When it employs the term "Roman Catholic Church", which it rarely does except in its relations with other Churches, it means the whole Church "governed by the successor of Peter and by the bishops in communion with him", wherever they live and whether they are of Eastern or Western tradition, since this Church has Rome as its centre. The only other meaning it would give to "Roman Catholic" is "a Catholic who lives in Rome", as a Catholic who lives in Warsaw could be called a Warsaw Catholic.<br />
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On the other hand, the Roman Catholic Church attaches great importance to the [[particular Church]]es within it, whose theological significance the Second Vatican Council highlighted. Two categories of particular Churches are distinguished.<br />
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=== Particular Churches or rites ===<br />
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The higher level of particular Churches is that of what the Second Vatican Council&#8217;s Decree on the Catholic Eastern Churches ''Orientalium Ecclesiarum'', 2[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19641121_orientalium-ecclesiarum_en.html] calls "particular Churches or rites". The long-established use of the term "rite" for these particular Churches is due to the central place that the Eucharist holds in the Roman Catholic Church, making each particular Church's liturgy its most noted distinguishing mark.<br />
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However, the word "rite" is used not only of particular Churches but also of liturgical rites. Examples are the [[Ambrosian rite]], the [[Mozarabic rite]] and the Roman rite, different liturgical rites used within the one Latin particular Church or Latin rite (singular). And terms such as "Byzantine rite" may refer to a liturgical rite used by more than one particular Church. To avoid the ambiguity to be found in the terms "particular Church" and "rite", the [[1983]] ''Code of Canon Law'' adopted instead the term "autonomous ritual Church" (in Latin, "Ecclesia ritualis sui iuris") for the same reality; and the [[1990]] ''Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches'' shortened this to "autonomous Church" (in Latin, "Ecclesia sui iuris").<br />
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The autonomy of each such Church, Eastern or Western, shows in its distinctive liturgy, canon law, theological tradition etc. The Latin or Western particular Church is governed by the ''Code of Canon Law'', while the ''Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches'' outlines the discipline that the Eastern particular Churches have in common.<br />
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The official yearly Vatican directory, ''Annuario Pontificio'' (Libreria Editrice Vaticana), gives the following list of rites (in the sense of particular Churches) within the Roman Catholic Church:<br />
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:A. Eastern rites of Alexandrian tradition: [[Coptic Catholic Church|Coptic]], Ethiopic (2).<br />
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:B. Eastern rites of Antiochian tradition: [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church|Malankara]], [[Maronite|Maronite]], [[Syrian Catholic Church|Syrian]] (3).<br />
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:C. Eastern rite of Armenian tradition: [[Armenian Catholic Church|Armenian Church]] (1).<br />
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:D. Eastern rites of Chaldaean or East-Syrian tradition: [[Chaldean]], [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church|Malabar]] (2).<br />
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:E. Eastern rites of Constantinopolitan or Byzantine tradition: [[Albanian Catholic Church|Albanian]], [[Belarusian Catholic Church|Belarusian]], Bulgarian, Greek, Greek-Melkite, Hungarian, Italo-Albanian, [[Romanian_Catholic_Church|Romanian]], Russian, [[Ruthenian Catholic Church|Ruthenian]], Slovak, [[Ukrainian_Greek_Catholic_Church|Ukrainian]] (12).<br />
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:F. [[Latin rite]] (1).<br />
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=== Particular or local Churches ===<br />
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In Catholic teaching, each diocese too is a local or particular Church: "A diocese is a section of the People of God entrusted to a bishop to be guided by him with the assistance of his clergy so that, loyal to its pastor and formed by him into one community in the Holy Spirit through the Gospel and the Eucharist, it constitutes one particular church in which the one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church of Christ is truly present and active" (Second Vatican Council, Decree on the Pastoral Office of Bishops in the Church ''Christus Dominus'', 11[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decree_19651028_christus-dominus_en.html]).<br />
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===Theological significance===<br />
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The particular Churches within the Roman Catholic Church, whether rites or dioceses, are seen as not simply branches or sections of a larger body. Theologically, each is considered to be the embodiment in a particular place of the whole Roman Catholic Church. "It is in these and formed out of them that the one and unique Catholic Church exists" (Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Decree on the Church ''Lumen Gentium'', 23.[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html]).<br />
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== Organization ==<br />
=== The Pope ===<br />
[[Image:Lateran basilica.png|thumb|right|250px|The Basilica of St John Lateran, cathedral of the diocese of Rome and so of the Pope]]<br />
What most obviously distinguishes the Roman Catholic Church from others is the link between its members and the Pope. The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], 882, quoting the Second Vatican Council&#8217;s document ''Lumen Gentium'', states: "The ''Pope'', Bishop of Rome and Peter&#8217;s successor, &#8216;is the perpetual and visible source and foundation of the unity both of the bishops and of the whole company of the faithful.&#8217;"[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm#I]<br />
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The Pope is referred to as the Vicar of Christ and the Supreme Pontiff of the Universal Church. Applying to him the term "absolute" would, however, give a false impression: he is not free (the word "absolute" etymologically means "loosed") to issue decrees at whim. Instead, his charge forces on him awareness that he, even more than other bishops, is "tied", bound, by an obligation of strictest fidelity to the teaching transmitted down the centuries in increasingly developed form within the Catholic Church.<br />
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In certain circumstances, this papal primacy, which is referred to also as the Pope's Petrine authority or function, involves [[papal infallibility]], i.e. the [[dogmatic definition|definitive]] character of the teaching on matters of faith and morals that he propounds solemnly as visible head of the Church. In any normal circumstances, exercise of this authority will involve previous consultation of all Catholic bishops.<br />
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The ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', 891 says: "&#8217;The Roman Pontiff, head of the college of bishops, enjoys this infallibility in virtue of his office, when, as supreme pastor and teacher of all the faithful &#8211; who confirms his brethren in the faith &#8211; he proclaims by a definitive act a doctrine pertaining to faith or morals... The infallibility promised to the Church is also present in the body of bishops when, together with Peter&#8217;s successor, they exercise the supreme [[Magisterium]],&#8217; above all in an [[Ecumenical Council]]."[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p4.htm#I]<br />
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These are two ways, the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', 890 states, in which the pastors of the Church exercise the charism of infallibility with which Christ has endowed them for the purpose of guarding from deviation and decay the authentic faith of the definitive covenant that God has established in Christ with his people. In other words, they are two ways of ensuring that "the gates of Hell will not prevail" (Matthew 16:18) against the Church.<br />
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The Pope lives in [[Vatican City]], set up in [[1929]] as a minute, but symbolically important, independent state within the city of Rome. The body of officials that assist him in governance of the Church as a whole is known as the [[Roman curia]]. The term "[[Holy See]]" (i.e. of Rome) is generally used only of Pope and curia, because the Code of Canon Law, which concerns governance of the [[Latin Rite|Latin Church]] as a whole and not internal affairs of the see (diocese) of Rome itself, necessarily uses the term in this technical sense.<br />
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The present rules governing the election of a pope are found in the apostolic constitution ''Universi Dominici Gregis''.[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_22021996_universi-dominici-gregis_en.html] This deals with the powers, from the death of a pope to the announcement of his successor&#8217;s election, of the cardinals and the departments of the Roman curia; with the funeral arrangements for the dead pope; and with the place, time and manner of voting of the meeting of the cardinal electors, a meeting known as a [[conclave]]. This word is derived from Latin ''com-'' (together) and ''clavis'' (key) and refers to the locking away of the participants from outside influences, a measure that was introduced first as a means instead of forcing them to reach a decision.<br />
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A pope has the option of resigning. (The term "abdicate" is not usually used of popes.) The two best known cases are those of [[Pope Celestine V]] in 1294 (who, though the poet [[Dante Alighieri]] pictured him condemned to hell for this action, was canonized in [[1313]]) and [[Pope Gregory XII]], who resigned in [[1415]] to help end the [[Great Western Schism]].<br />
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===The Cardinals===<br />
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[[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinals]] are appointed by the pope, generally from the ranks of his assistants in the curia and bishops of important sees, Latin or Eastern, throughout the world. <br />
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In [[1059]], the right of electing the Pope was assigned exclusively to the principal clergy of Rome and the bishops of the seven "suburbicarian" sees. Because of their resulting importance, the term "cardinal" (from Latin "cardo", meaning "hinge") was applied to them. In the twelfth century the practice of appointing ecclesiastics from outside Rome as cardinals began. Each cardinal is still assigned a church in Rome as his "titular church" or is linked with one of the [[suburbicarian diocese]]s. Of these sees, the [[Dean of the College of Cardinals]] holds that of Ostia while keeping his preceding link with one of the other six sees. Traditionally, there have thus been only six cardinals who hold the rank of [[Cardinal Bishop]], but when [[Eastern rite]] [[patriarch]]s are made cardinals, they too hold the rank of Cardinal Bishop, without being assigned a suburbicarian see, still less a church in Rome. The other cardinals have the rank either of [[Cardinal Priest]] or [[Cardinal Deacon]].<br />
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Only a limited number (which has been set at a maximum of 120) can be admitted to a conclave. The rule has therefore been made that cardinals who have celebrated their eightieth birthday before the pope&#8217;s death may not join the conclave. Accordingly, no more than 120 ecclesiastics below the age of eighty may normally be made cardinals, but there may be any number over that age. This has enabled the Pope to confer the cardinalatial dignity on particularly worthy older clergy, such as theologians, or priests who have suffered long imprisonment under dictatorial regimes.<br />
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The colour associated with the robes of cardinals is a crimson red, while the red of bishops who are not cardinals (and of Apostolic Protonotaries and Honorary Prelates) is really a Roman purple, and that of the lowest class of [[monsignor]]s (Chaplains of His Holiness) has a violet hue known as amarinthine red.<br />
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The hat and tassels of cardinals&#8217; armorial bearings are red; those of bishops and lesser prelates are green.<br />
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=== The Bishops ===<br />
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[[Bishops]] are the successors of the apostles in the governance of the Church. The Pope himself is a bishop and traditionally uses the title "Venerable Brother" when writing formally to another bishop. The typical role of a bishop is to provide pastoral governance for a diocese. Bishops who fulfill this function are known as diocesan ordinaries, because they have what canon law calls ordinary (i.e. not delegated) authority for a diocese. Other bishops may be appointed to assist them (auxiliary and coadjutor bishops) or to carry out a function in a broader field of service to the Church. Even when a bishop retires from his active service, he remains a bishop, since the ontological effect of the sacrament of holy orders is permanent.<br />
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On the other hand, titles such as [[archbishop]] or [[patriarch]] imply no ontological alteration, but are generally associated with special authority. Some of the Eastern Catholic Churches are headed by a patriarch. (A few bishops in the Latin Church also have the title of patriarch, but in their case the title is merely honorary.) Two Eastern Churches are headed by a major archbishop, a bishop who has practically all the powers of a patriarch, but without the title. Smaller Eastern Churches (consisting however of at least two dioceses or, to use the Eastern term, two eparchies) are headed by a metropolitan. Within the Latin Church too, dioceses are normally grouped together as ecclesiastical provinces, in which the bishop of a particular see has the title of metropolitan archbishop, with some very limited authority for the other dioceses, which are known as suffragan sees. However, almost all the authority of a metropolitan archbishop to intervene in case of necessity with regard to a suffragan see belongs, in the case of the metropolitan see itself, to the senior suffragan bishop. (In some Eastern Churches, the term "metropolitan bishop" corresponds instead to "diocesan ordinary" in the Latin Church; and an Anglican usage of "suffragan" corresponds to Catholic "auxiliary bishop.") The Latin-Church title of primate is now merely honorary.<br />
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Bishops of a country or region form an episcopal conference and meet periodically to discuss common problems. Decisions in certain fields, notably liturgy, fall within the exclusive competence of these conferences. But the decisions are binding on the individual bishops only if agreed to by at least two-thirds of the membership and confirmed by the Holy See.<br />
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=== Other clergy ===<br />
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Bishops are assisted by [[priest]]s and [[deacon]]s. [[parish|Parishes]], whether territorial or person-based, within a diocese are normally in the charge of a priest, known as the parish priest or the pastor. Dioceses too, though normally territorial, may be person-based (as, for instance, a military ordinariate).<br />
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The honorary title of [[Monsignor]] may be conferred by the Pope upon a diocesan priest (not a member of a religious institute) at the request of the priest's bishop. The title goes with any of the following three awards: <br />
* ''Chaplain of His Holiness'' (called Papal Chamberlain until the reform of 31 March 1969 &#8211; see <i>Acta Apostolicae Sedis</i> of that year, pages 334-340, or [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/instruction69.htm this site]), the lowest level, distinguished by purple buttons and trim on the black [[cassock]], with a purple sash. <br />
* ''Honorary Prelate'' (until 1969 called Domestic Prelate), the middle level, distinguished by red buttons and trim on the black cassock, with a purple sash, and by choir dress that includes a purple cassock. <br />
* ''Protonotary Apostolic'', the highest level, with the same dress as that of an Honorary Prelate, except that the non-obligatory purple silk cape known as a ''ferraiuolo'' may be worn also.<br />
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In the Latin Church only celibate men, as a rule, are ordained as priests, while the Eastern Catholic Churches also ordain married men. Both sides maintain the tradition of holding it impossible for a priest to marry. Even a married priest whose wife dies may not then marry.<br />
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To explain this tradition, one theory[http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cclergy/documents/rc_con_cclergy_doc_01011993_chisto_en.html] holds that, in early practice, married men who became priests &#8211; they were often older men, "elders" &#8211; were expected to refrain permanently from sexual relations with their wives, perhaps because they, as priests representing Christ, were treated as the Church's spouse. When at a later stage it was clear that not all did refrain, the Western reaction was to ordain only celibates, while the Eastern Churches relaxed the rule, so that Eastern Orthodox Churches now require their married clergy to abstain from sexual relations only for a limited period before celebrating the Eucharist. The Church in Persia, which in the fifth century became separated from the Church described as Orthodox or Catholic, decided at the end of that century to abolish the rule of continence and allow priests to marry, but recognized that it was abrogating an ancient tradition. The Coptic and Ethiopic Churches, whose separation came slightly later, allow deacons (who are ordained when they are boys) to marry, but not priests. The theory in question, if true, helps explain why all the ancient Christian Churches of both East and West, with the one exception mentioned, exclude marriage after priestly ordination, and why all reserve the episcopate (seen as a fuller form of priesthood than the presbyterate) for the celibate.<br />
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Since the [[Second Vatican Council]], the Latin Church admits married men of mature age to ordination as deacons, but not if they intend to advance to priestly ordination. Ordination even to the diaconate is an impediment to a later marriage, though special dispensation can be received for remarriage under extenuating circumstances.<br />
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The Roman Catholic Church and the other ancient Christian Churches see priestly ordination as a [[sacrament]] effecting an ontological change, not as the deputizing of someone to perform a function or as the admission of someone to a profession such as that of medicine or law. They also consider that priestly ordination can be conferred only on males. In the face of continued questioning, Pope John Paul II felt obliged to confirm the existing teaching that the Church is not empowered to change this practice: "In order that all doubt may be removed regarding a matter of great importance, a matter which pertains to the Church's divine constitution itself, in virtue of my ministry of confirming the brethren (cf. [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 22:32) I declare that the Church has no authority whatsoever to confer priestly ordination on women and that this judgment is to be definitively held by all the Church's faithful."<br />
(John Paul II, ''Ordinatio Sacerdotis'' [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/apost_letters/documents/hf_jp-ii_apl_22051994_ordinatio-sacerdotalis_en.html] )<br />
The Roman Catholic Church thus holds this teaching as irrevocable and as having the character of [[Infallibility of the Church|infallibility]], not in virtue of the apostolic letter ''Ordinatio Sacerdotalis'' itself, from which this quotation is taken and which states this only implicitly, but because the teaching "has been preserved by the constant and universal Tradition of the Church and firmly taught by the Magisterium."<br />
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What in the Latin Church were called minor orders have, since the Second Vatican Council, been reduced to two, lectors and [[acolyte|acolytes]]. These are now called "instituted ministries", and those on whom they are conferred are no longer classified as members of the clergy.<br />
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=== Public consecrated life ===<br />
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Within the Catholic Church, there are those who publicly undertake to observe as obligations what the Christian gospel proposes as counsels rather than commands. Some Catholics, in particular hermits and consecrated virgins, do so individually. Others group together to form what are called religious institutes. The term "[[Catholic order|religious order]]", which in its strict sense refers only to a subset of these institutes, is commonly used also of all of them.<br />
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There is a great variety of religious institutes. Some have only lay members, others have both priests and lay members, others still may have only priests and men preparing for priesthood. Some date from the earliest centuries of Christianity, others spring up every year.<br />
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These groups normally begin as an association formed, with the consent of the diocesan bishop, for the purpose of becoming a religious institute. After time has provided proof of the rectitude, seriousness and durability of the group, the bishop, after consulting the Holy See, may formally set it up as a religious institute, for which he is responsible. Later, when it has grown in numbers, perhaps extending also into other dioceses, and further proved its worth, then the Holy See may grant it formal approval, bringing it under the Holy See's responsibility, rather than that of the bishops of the dioceses where it is present. For the good of institutes and to provide for the needs of their apostolate, the Holy See can exempt them from the governance of the local bishops, bringing them entirely under the authority of the Holy See itself or of someone else.<br />
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The oldest existing forms of such institutes are those of [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, such as the [[Benedictines]] of the West and the [[Basilians]] of the East, living in monasteries. Around the thirteenth century Mendicant Orders, such as of those of the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] and [[Franciscan]]s, arose. Unlike the monks and nuns, the members of these orders had their convents not in the country but in the towns, which were becoming increasingly important. One of the best known of those that appeared still later is the [[Society of Jesus]], which today is the religious institute with the largest number of members (known as Jesuits).<br />
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Typically, members of religious institutes take vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. For some, the vow of stability in a monastery or to live according to a particular written rule is considered to include these vows. Other institutes add further vows. People wishing to join a religious institute may spend some time as postulants, then as novices, and then one or more periods with temporary vows, before committing themselves fully with perpetual vows.<br />
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Unless they are priests, male members of religious institutes are usually referred to as "Brother", while in female institutes most members are called "Sister", but the superior of the whole institute, or even of a single community, is usually called "Mother" or "[[Mother Superior]]".<br />
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Secular institutes are another form of consecrated life. They differ from religious institutes in that their members live their lives in the ordinary conditions of the world, either alone, in their families or in fraternal groups.<br />
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Somewhat similar are the societies of apostolic life, dedicated to pursuit of an apostolic purpose, such as educational or missionary work. They do not take religious vows, but live in common, striving for perfection through observing the "constitutions" of the society to which they belong.<br />
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== Worldwide distribution ==<br />
:''For the Roman Catholic Church regionally and by country see [[:Category:Roman Catholic Church by Country]] and [[:Category:Roman Catholic Church by region]]''<br />
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The total number of Catholics in the world is over one billion. They are found in nearly every country, though they are more concentrated in the Americas and Europe. They currently make up 63% of the population of [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], 40% of [[Europe]], roughly 20% of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], and 3% of [[Asia]] [http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/ANNU2000.HTM]. <br />
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In [[Europe]], Catholic majorities are found in [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Croatia]], [[France]], [[Hungary]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Spain]]. [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Switzerland]], as well as [[Northern Ireland]], are about equally divided between Catholics and Protestants. In the [[Czech Republic]], Roman Catholics make up 39% of the population. Catholics are a significant minority in [[Britain]], where their faith underwent a revival in the [[19th Century|19th]] and early [[20th Century]] after three centuries of relentless persecution.<br />
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Nearly all [[Latin American]] countries have large Catholic majorities, among them being such heavyweights as [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], [[Colombia]], and [[Argentina]]. Catholics in the [[United States of America]] are more numerous than any other single Church: as a result of massive immigration, mainly from countries like [[Italy]], [[Ireland]] and [[Germany]], their number grew from virtually nothing in 1790 to about a quarter of the total population by 1920, a proportion that remains today. Catholics are a majority in neighbouring [[Canada]], where there has been a strong historical presence of France and much immigration from Catholic countries. <br />
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In Asia, the [[Philippines]] (once a Spanish colony) and [[East Timor]] (a former Portuguese colony) have Catholic majorities, and most Christians in [[Lebanon]] are Roman Catholics, while a significant Catholic population has developed in [[South Korea]].<br />
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Catholicism has spread relatively recently to some parts of the world. There are now some 115 million in [[Africa]].<br />
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The number of Catholics in the world continues to increase, through population growth in developing countries and, to a lesser extent, spread to new areas. The increase between [[1978]] and [[2000]] was 288 million. [[Protestant]] [[evangelicals]] have succeeded in making inroads into parts of Latin America, but remain a small percentage of the population. In most industrialized countries, church attendance has decreased since the [[19th century]], though it remains higher than that of other "mainline" Churches.<br />
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== Criticisms ==<br />
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Over the centuries, the Roman Catholic Church has gathered criticisms for numerous reasons. (Some particular controversies are discussed in separate articles.)<br />
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[[Pope John Paul II]] acknowledged publicly that the Roman Catholic Church (and its members) has sometimes been involved in questionable activities, and asked God to forgive its sins, both in action and omission.<br />
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===Historical criticism===<br />
Historically, the Church's response to [[heresy]] through the [[Inquisition]] and its alleged association with [[witchhunt]]s have brought criticism. [[Pope John Paul II]] apologized for certain historic excesses in May 1995.<br />
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Itself an essentially non-democratic, highly centralized organization, it has been accused of supporting [[absolute monarchy]] and, later, [[Fascism]] and [[Falange|Falangism]]. <br />
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Though others have credited the Church for contributions to many of western society's fundamental principles of human rights, [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment philosophers]] perceived the Church's doctrines as superstitious and hindering the progress of civilization. Many thinkers and academics criticized it for opposing scientific advancement. The trial of [[Galileo Galilei]] is a famous example of the Church's advocacy of Ptolemaic [[geocentrism]]. [[Pope John Paul II]] also acknowledged this, and publicly apologized for the Church's actions on October 31, 1992. The Church has, however, made many contributions to philosophy, art, music, engineering and architecture.<br />
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== See also ==<br />
*[[:Category:Roman Catholic Church|Other articles on the Catholic Church]]<br />
*[[History_of_the_Roman_Catholic_Church|History of the Roman Catholic Church]]<br />
*[[Christianity]]<br />
*[[:Category:Roman_Catholic_Church_by_Country|Roman Catholic Church by Country]]<br />
*[[Catholic Worker Movement]]<br />
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== External links ==<br />
{{wikisourcecat}}<br />
* [http://www.vatican.va Vatican: the Holy See]<br />
* [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church] <br />
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ The Catholic Encyclopedia] Resource concerning Catholic history and doctrine as well as related matters of philosophy.<br />
* [http://www.catholic.com/ Catholic Answers] Catholic apologetics and evangelization organization in North America<br />
* [http://www.masstimes.org/ Mass Times] A directory of Mass times, parish locations, directions and phone numbers for traveling Catholics<br />
* [http://www.compasschurch.com/ Athens Church] Catholics visiting Athens are welcome to attend our service.<br />
* [http://www.cathworld.org/search CATHworld Search Engine] Resource for finding Catholic information and sites.<br />
* [http://catholicapologeticsofamerica.blogspot.com Catholic Apologetics of America] A large, award winning Catholic blog with several articles and links.<br />
* [http://www.stblogsparishhall.com Catholic Blogs and Resources]<br />
* [http://www.catholicculture.org/sites/sites.cfm Catholic Culture Sites Review] A categorized, reviewed, searchable collection of links to orthodox Roman Catholic links. Ratings for fidelity, resources and useability.<br />
*[http://www.aboutcatholics.com/ About Catholics] Catholic evangelization and information about specific beliefs<br />
* [http://www.trulyopendirectory.com/Religion_And_Spirituality_-_Christianity_-_Denominations_-_Catholicism Truly Open Directory] A categorized collection of links on Roman Catholicism<br />
* [http://www.catholicexchange.com/ Catholic Exchange] non-profit evangelist charity <br />
* [http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/ Catholic Hierarchy] information on Catholic bishops and dioceses<br />
* [http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/cardinals.htm The Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church] information on the Cardinals of the Catholic Church<br />
* [http://CUF.org Catholics United for the Faith]<br />
* [http://ewtn.com EWTN] American Catholic television station, live streaming in English and Spanish. <br />
* [http://www.ewtn.com/library/CHISTORY/ANNU2000.HTM Statistics on the Global Catholic population]<br />
* [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/augustine/a/faq-cc.html Frequently Asked Questions About the Catholic Church]<br />
* [http://catholic.tc/welcome.html Catholic Church in Providenciales, Grand Turk, South Caicos and North Caicos]<br />
* [http://catholicism.about.com Catholicism from About.com]<br />
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== Additional reading ==<br />
*''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' - English translation (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2000). ISBN 1574551108 [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm]<br />
*H. W. Crocker III, ''Triumph - The Power and the Glory of the Catholic Church: A 2,000-Year History'' (Prima Publishing, 2001). ISBN 0761529241<br />
*Eamon Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes'' (Yale Nota Bene, 2002). ISBN 0300091656<br />
*K. O. Johnson, ''Why Do Catholics Do That?'' (Ballantine, 1994). ISBN 0345397266<br />
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[[vi:Giáo h&#7897;i Công giáo Rôma]]</div>Jachinhttps://thelemapedia.org/index.php?title=Talk:Aleister_Crowley&diff=4461Talk:Aleister Crowley2005-06-26T20:51:52Z<p>Jachin: Degree's of Masonry</p>
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<div>No discussion page on Aleister Crowley? I feel priviledged for starting it then. First thing is first, I wish to move to change Aleister Crowley's degrees of Freemasonry to reflect a correct level, as far as I am aware he was a Master Mason (3rd Degree), to have attained 33rd degree in one, possibly two years depending on the gap made available is impossible even if it is based on the Ashka calender of one degree per lunar cycle, which isn't practised in many places. Degrees are partaken per years generally. So it would be impossible for a 33rd Degree to be obtained in the time period alloted. Does anyone have any input on this?</div>Jachin