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User:Phos

2004-10-17T09:17:47Z

Phos:

Fraternitas L.V.X. Occulta

2004-10-02T09:56:29Z

Phos: internal link to PFC added

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Fraternitas L.V.X. Occulta, the "Fraternity of the Hidden Light," is an "Aquarian Age Mystery School" founded by Paul Clark, who serves as the Steward of the Order.

The F.L.O. traces its lineage from the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] via the Thoth-Hermes Temple of the Alpha et Omega, under the Preamonstrance of [[Paul Foster Case]].

The stated aims of the organization threefold:

1. To act as a modern day repository of the Ancient Wisdom teachings of the Tarot, Qabalah, Alchemy, Astrology, and related Arcane Sciences;

2. To train its members for unselfish service to humanity, by providing a seeding-ground for their growth and development through group and individual applications of the Wisdom teachings;

3. To promulgate the Ancient Wisdom teachings in an effort to elevate the thought life of a humanity at large, and help herald the coming of a universal brotherhood on earth.

F.L.O. is a worldwide organization, with Lodges and study groups throughout America, Europe and Spain.

The website for the Grand Lodge of the [http://www.lvx.org Fraternity of the Hidden Light]

The Star Ruby

2004-10-01T09:06:00Z

Phos: an article written for lodge newsletter - could use more information

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First appearing in print with the publication of the Book of Lies in 1913 e.v., the Star Ruby (chapter 25 of Liber CCCXXXIII) was described by Crowley as a “new and more elaborate version of the Banishing Ritual of the Pentagram.” Disciples at the Abbey of Thelema in Cefalu performed the ritual as part of their daily practices, along with Will and Liber Resh. The ritual was later modified somewhat and released in 1929 e.v. as an appendix of Magick in Theory and Practice (Book4: Part III), where Crowley also noted in chapter 13: “It is usually sufficient to perform a general banishing, and to rely upon the aid of the guardians invoked. Let the banishing therefore be short, but in no wise slurred – for it is useful as it tends to produce the proper attitutude of mind for the invocations. ‘The Banishing Ritual of the Pentagram’ (as now rewritten, Liber 333, Cap. XXV) is the best to use.”

Built up from the traditional Lesser Pentagram Ritual of the Golden Dawn (see Liber O vel Manus et Sagittae, section IV), while similar in some aspects, the Star Ruby also has many significant differences in its structure; for example, using Greek instead of Hebrew intonations; similarly, while its predecessor is suitable for both invoking and banishing elemental forces, the Star Ruby is exclusively a banishing ritual – and a truly thorough, focused, and exceedingly powerful one. The rituals do build upon one another, and it has been found beneficial in my experience to first master the older form before working with this new and improved ritual.

The ritual opens with the establishment of the divine form of Hoor-paar-kraat in the operator, as he assumes the Sign of Silence. The successfully establishment of this form and condition of consciousness is central to the remainder of the ritual, for it establishes within the magician the center of authority within as the “still, silent self” of the Divine Child Harpocrates, a symbol of the Holy Guardian Angel that is effectively known and experienced as the True Will. From this center of Silence, the calm depths of true power, lying timeless in eternity, we now move into action. The lightning flash of Will is invoked to banish by fiat with a “great sweep” of the right hand “down and out, expelling forcibly thy breath” the words Από πάυτως κακοδαιμουος (“away every evil spirit.”).

The qabalistic cross section of the ritual invokes the solar-phallic regency of God in all glory and majesty:

With the same forefinger touch thy forehead and say ΣΟΙ, thy member, and say Ω ΦΑΛΛΕ, thy right shoulder, and say ΙΣΧΥΡΟΣ, thy left shoulder, and say ΕΥΧΑΡΙΣΤΟΣ then clasp thine hands, locking the fingers, and cry ΙΑΩ.

In the sparse notes to the ritual given in Liber 333, Crowley informs us in a footnote to the phrase Ω ΦΑΛΛΕ that the“secret sense of the words is to be sought in the numeration thereof.” The isopsephy of this injunction to the solar-phallic creative God has a value of 1366, which is identical to that of κτεις (535) + φαλλος (831), or yoni + lingam. Another phrase with this same value is η φωνη, “the voice.” Thus visualizing oneself standing as a radiating erect column of light, crying out in Greek words which may be translated“Thy, O Phallus, Mighty, Beneficient, IAO!” the creative and irresistible universal currents of Love, Life and Liberty are invoked.

The ritual then proceeds to the establishment of the quarters, with a flaming pentagram visualized at the forehead and cast forth into each cardinal quarter with the forceful Sign of the Enterer. The older form of the ritual from Liber 333 uses the formula of יהוה in descent around the perimeter of the circle as the magician moves widdershins, so that to the East is associated Fire and the Lion Kerub; to the North is Water and the Eagle Kerub; in the West, the Kerub of Man and Air; and finally in the South the element of Earth and the Bull Kerub. The characteristic vocalization of each Kerub is used to project the name out into the quarter: the roar of the Lion, the scream of the Eagle, the voice of Man, and the bellowing of the Bull.

The circle being completed, the magician returns to the center of the circle and raises “thy voice in the Paian” invoking Pan under the starry dome of Night, and giving the Signs of N.O.X. in such a way as to show the progression up the Tree of Life and across the Abyss. Then the magician, standing in the radiant form of the solar-phallic cross, calls forth the guardians of the quarters and the effulgent ensigns of the Pentagram and Hexagram. The guardians called forth in this ritual are not those of the Hebraic Archangels as in the Lesser Ritual of the Pentagram; rather, the Star Ruby appears to be working with beings that first find their description in the Neoplatonic accounts of Proclus.

The rite then concludes with the Qabalistic Cross again, followed by the banishing by fiat.

Yoga

2004-10-01T09:00:55Z

Phos: /* Crowley on Yoga */ version of an article written for lodge newsletter

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'''Yoga''', meaning ''union'' or ''yoking'' in Sanskrit, is the primary focus of Hinduism's diverse religious activities. YOGA is a science of the body, the mind, the consciousness and the soul. Yoga is a teaching of wisdom and knowledge which has been transmitted to mankind from the great Yogis and Rishis of ancient times, though its geographical origin lies in India, it is universal, all-valid, eternal knowledge.

There are several forms and paths of yoga that include meditation (Raja Yoga), devotional prayer (Bhakti Yoga), selfless service to others (Karma Yoga), practices for discrimination of truth and reality (Jnana Yoga), and even meditational forms of exercise and bodily upkeep (Hatha Yoga, a part of Raja Yoga). Yoga, as condified by Patanjali, is also one of the six major schools of Hindu philosophy and as such specifically refers to Raja Yoga, the ''royal'' path of divine meditation on the one Brahman.

Yoga is indicative of a broad range of practices that aim to, through physical, mental and spiritual activities, focus the individual on the true essence of reality, to achieve moksha or samadhi, liberation and enlightenment. A man who has taken up successful practice of Yoga is called a Yogi (also spelled Yogin), a woman Yogini.

==Bhagavad Gita==
The Bhagavad Gita is the archetype of Yoga scripture. Capturing the essence and at the same time going into detail about the various Yogas and their philosophies, it was the groundstone to Yogic thought, and constantly refers to itself as such, the "Scripture of Yoga" (see the final verses of each chapter).

It is spoken in the format of Lord Krishna, self-identified as a manifestation of Brahman (the impersonal, supreme force of the cosmos, the Divine Ground), to Arjuna, a warrior and friend who is loathe to go to battle that would involve his killing his own gurus (teachers) and family members. The book is contained within the Mahabharata, and is thought to have been written some time between the 5th and the 2nd century BC.

Krishna summarizes the Yogas through eighteen chapters. Yoga can fundamentally be said to comprise four main streams: Raja Yoga (psycho-physical meditation), Bhakti Yoga (devotion and love), Karma Yoga (selfless action), and Jnana (pronounced ''gyaan'' in the Northern states and ''jnyaana'' in the South of India) Yoga (self-transcending knowledge). Other forms that exist today sprang up long after the Bhagavad Gita and Yoga Sutras (to be discussed below) and are all essentially forms of Raja Yoga.

While each path differs, their fundamental goal is one and the same: to realize Brahman (the Divine Ground), as being the only truth, that the body is temporal, but the soul (Atman) is infinite and one with Brahman. Yoga's aim (nirvana, Moksha) is essentially to escape from the cycle of reincarnation through realization of oneness with the ultimate reality.

Here are some quotations from Lord Krishna that make up history's first real yoga text and give comprehensive definitions of the '''four principal Yogas''':

==On all Yoga in general==
:"When the mind comes to rest, restrained by the practice of yoga, and when beholding the Self, by the self, he is content in the Self." (B.G., Chapter 6, Verse 20) " He who finds his happiness within, his delight within, and his light within, this yogi attains the bliss of Brahman, becoming Brahman."

===On Raja Yoga===
:" Establishing a firm seat for himself in a clean place... having directed his mind to a single object, with his thought and the activity of the senses controlled, he should practice yoga for the purpose of self-realization. Holding the body, head and neck erect, motionless and steady, gazing at the tip of his own nose and not looking in any direction, with quieted mind, banishing fear, established in the brahmacharin vow of celibacy, controlling the mind, with thoughts fixed on Me, he should sit, concentrated, devoted to Me. Thus, continually disciplining himself, the yogin whose mind is subdued goes to nirvana, to supreme peace, to union with Me." (B.G., Chapter 6, Verses 11-15)

===On Bhakti Yoga===
:".... those who, renouncing all actions in Me, and regarding Me as the Supreme, worship me... of those whose thoughts have entered into Me, I am soon the deliverer from the ocean of death and transmigration, Arjuna. Keep your mind on Me alone, your intellect on Me. Thus you shall dwell in me hereafter." (B.G., Chapter 12, Verses 6-8) " And he who serves me with the yoga of unswerving devotion, transcending these qualities [binary opposites, like good and evil, pain and pleasure] is ready for absorption in Brahman." (B.G. Chapter 14, Verse 26)

===On Karma Yoga===
:" With the body, with the mind, with the intellect, even merely with the senses, the yogins perform action toward self-purification, having abandoned attachment. He who is disciplined in yoga, having abandoned the fruit of action, attains steady peace..." (B.G. Chapter 5, Verses 11-12)

===On Jnana Yoga===
:" When he perceives the various states of being as resting in the One, and from That alone spreading out, then he attains Brahman. / They who know, through the eye of knowledge, the distinction between the field and the knower of the field, as well as the liberation of beings from material nature, go to the Supreme." (B.G. Chapter 15, Verse 31 / Verse 35)

Raja Yoga is, in general, stilling of the mind and body through meditative techniques, geared at realizing one's true nature. Bhakti Yoga is simply love and devotion, epitomized today in such practices as worship of various Hindu deities, finding salvation in love of Christ, etc. Karma Yoga is essentially acting, or doing one's duties in life, without desire or expectation of reward, a sort of constant sacrifice of action to the Supreme. It includes, but is not limited to, dedication to one's chosen profession and its perfection to God and all sorts of community service, since they are inherently done without thought of personal gain. Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what is not, what is eternal and what is not eternal.

==Definition==
Cappeller's Sanskrit-English Dictionary defines '''Yoga''' as:
m. ''collection or concentration of the mind, meditation, contemplation'' ([http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/indologie/tamil/cap_search.html])

==Darshanas==
One of the six ''darshanas'' (schools) of Vedic/Hindu philosophy, and as such specifically refers to ''Raja Yoga'', the royal path of divine meditation on the one Brahman. A man who has taken up successful practice of Yoga is called a Yogi (also spelled Yogin), a woman Yogini. Several other forms of yoga exist within Hinduism including those of selfless action (''Karma Yoga''), selfless love (''Bhakti Yoga''), and discriminatory contemplation (''Jnana Yoga'').

Yogic philosophy is primarily Upanishadic with roots in Samkhya, and some scholars see some influence by Buddhism. It is a universal philosophy that enjoins the practitioner to pursue his or her own path to enlightenment, depending on personality and inclination. It is very much in line with its Vedic roots and the traditional pluralism of Hinduism. For this reason, it is easy for a "Christian", for example, to see Jesus the Christ as his or her own ishwar-devata. "Christ the Yogi" is not an uncommon concept in the world of Yoga today. Most religions, when viewed through their ethical and spiritual standpoints without the trappings of dogma, are easily reconcilable with Yoga philosophy in general because of its transcendental message.

== Tantra ==

While the Bhagavad Gita, Yoga Sutras and Hatha Yoga Pradipika are clearly founded on Upanishadic and Brahmanical thought, much of Yoga has been influenced by and expanded into Tantra. Tantra is more ritual based, having its roots in the first millennium CE, and incorporates much more of a deist base. Almost entirely founded on Shiva and Shakti worship, Tantra visualizes the ultimate Brahman as Param Shiva, manifested through Shiva (the passive, masculine force of Lord Shiva) and Shakti (the active, creative feminine force of his consort, variously known as Ma Kali, Durga, Shakti, Parvati and others). It focuses on the kundalini, a three and a half-coiled 'snake' of spiritual energy at the base of the spine that rises through the chakras until union between Shiva and Shakti (also known as samadhi) is achieved.

It views the body as means, rather than as obstruction, to understanding, and as such incorporates mantra (Sanskrit prayers, often to gods, that are repeated), yantra (complex symbols representing Shakti in her various forms through intricate geometric figures) and rituals that range from simple murti (statue representations of deities) or image worship to meditation on a corpse! While much tantra certainly, through its many texts (see kaularvatantra, mahanirvana tantra) and teachers (e.g. Abhinava Gupta, Ramakrishna [a saint who practiced Kali bhakti, Advaita Vedanta and tantra, etc.) seems odd and highly arcane at times, it is transparent as being completely yogic. Also, injunctions are made that most people are not suitable for Tantra, especially those of pashu-bhava (animal disposition). This implies that anyone who has not observed celibacy, honesty, respect of elders, bodily cleansing, ritual cleansing through prayer, and various other processes for up to twelve years at a time, and still retains base desires, greed, sexual motivations, etc. one is not fit to practice Tantra. For this reason, even more stringently than other Yogas, Tantra, both Hindu and Buddhist, remains a strictly Guru-initiated system that as yet finds few true adepts outside of India.

==The Yoga Sutra and its followers==

While meditative practices like asanas (postures) and pranayama (breath control) existed long before Patanjali, his brilliant eight-limbed system was what became the standard for almost all yoga schools that followed. Raja Yoga, being difficult to achieve (one must be focused on the Supreme), several Guru (teacher) lines came to make firm methodologies of realizing it.

:A side note on the Guru: Emphasized by all schools of yoga as indispensable, the Guru takes on quasi-divine proportions. Acknowledged as a siddha (adept) who has attained the eight siddhis (powers) afforded by yoga (they range from transportation of the mind to anywhere into the universe to the only truly desirable power, samadhi), the Guru guides the shisya (student) through yogic discipline from the beginning. When doing yoga, the student is urged to look long and hard for a sadguru (True Teacher) and then devote himself from imbibing that Guru's learning.

The most famous of the traditional Hindu schools of yoga, and the basis for nearly all modern systems, is Hatha Yoga. It is representative of all non-Bhakti-Karma-Jnana Yoga that has become so popular in the west today.

==Teachers==
Beginning with the arrival of Swami Vivekananda in 1893, there has been a steady flow of learned teachers that have brought the transcendental message of Yoga to the West. While the influence of these Yogins is deeply inscribed into the surface of the modern yogic ethos, both in India and America, a proliferation of 'yoga clinics' and non-spiritual yoga systems has been seen in the West, especially in the United States. While many Americans view it as an exercise system that simply enhances one's health, a much greater number in India (and a minority in America) still see it as it has been for over 5,000 years, whether in the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the writings of the Dalai Lama, or the "Yoga Boom" of the twentieth century, a system of spirituality universal in its application.

=== The Great Modern Yogins ===

First brought into America as early as the 1890s by the great yogin and disciple of Shri Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda, the Hindu representative in the Chicago Parliament of World Religions, Yoga has also been transported in the arms of many other great yogins and formed into stratified schools seeking to propagate Yoga in its great spiritual context. But these teachers have made their imprint in both India and America, and continue to serve as modern embodiments of Yoga.

Swami Rama Tirtha, who came from a deep yoga tradition in the Himalayas of India, was the founding spiritual head of the Himalayan Institute. He was the first yogin to come to America and be subjected to the scrutiny of modern science. Among other things, he stunned doctors by stopping the beat of his heart completely for several minutes.

Many modern schools of Hatha Yoga derive from the school of Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, who taught in Mysore, India from 1931 until his death in 1993. Among his students prominent in popularizing Yoga in the West were Sri K. Pattabhi Jois, B.K.S. Iyengar, Indra Devi and Krishnamacharya's son T.K.V. Desikachar. Desikachar founded the Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandiram in Madras (now Chennai), with the aim of
making available the heritage of yoga as taught by Krishnamacharya.

Other great yogins are Paramahansa Yogananda, practitioner of Kriya Yoga who arrived in America as a powerful example of the universality of Yoga. Sporting a cross, he came to the U.S. with the Hindu Bhagavad Gita in one hand and the Christian New Testament in the other, speaking to his disciples in pluralist ideology with Yoga as the binding force.

Sri Aurobindo, referred to as Aurobindo Ghosh by those who consider him as merely a philosopher rather than an Avatar, was not simply an intellectual genius born in West Bengal and educated in the best university in England. His masterful translations and interpretations of Hindu and Yogic scriptures are mystic and esoteric, and often are the opposite of what you will find in Max Muller's and other purely intellectual translations of the sacred Sanskrit texts, among which his translations/commentaries on the Hindu texts of the Upanishads and Gita are mystic in nature, and his epic Hindu/Yoga poem Savitri is a treasure of Hindu Yogic literature, formally being the longest poem ever written in English. Beyond this, his personal life is a fascinating testimony of the life of a true yogin. After the goddess Sri entered his being, he became Sri Aurobindo. Besides his influence and scholarly writing on Yoga, he also founded Sri Aurobindo Ashram in Pondicherry, that continues to propagate the practice of Integral Yoga, which is a Tantric synthesis of the four main Yogas (Karma, Jnana, Bhakti and Raja).

Gopi Krishna was a Kashmiri office worker and spiritual seeker who was born in 1903, and wrote autobiographical accounts of his spiritual experiences with Yoga. His most famous one is "Kundalini": Path to Higher Consciousness." Gopi Krishna's graphic accounts of his experiences stand out as among the clearest journals documenting a spiritual transformation. They are highly recommended as reading for anyone interested in Yogic phenomena.

Swami Sivananda (born in Pattamadai, Tamil Nadu, India in 1887), one of the greatest yoga masters of 20th century has authored over 200 highly inspiring books on yoga. Sivananda has also established Sivananda ashram of Rishikesh, India and is the founder of Divine Life Society. His disciple, Swami Satyananda (born in Almorah, Uttar Pradesh, India in 1923), has established International Yoga Fellowship movement, Bihar School of Yoga and Bihar Yoga Bharati, world's first university on yoga. The university is now headed by his disciple, Swami Niranjananda.

Mahamandaleshwar Paramhans Swami Maheshwarananda (Swamiji) comes from Rajasthan, India, and has been living in Vienna, Austria since 1972. Swamiji is the author of the scientific master-system Yoga in Daily Life and founder of the International Sri Deep Madhavananda Ashram Fellowship and ''Yoga in Daily Life'' ashrams and centres worldwide. He dedicated his whole life to help humanity through yoga and to evoke the ancient spiritual heritage of Sat Sanatana Dharma (the True Eternal Faith, ''sanatana dharma'' being another name for Hinduism).

Some modern styles of Yoga popular in America, Australia, Europe, India:

*Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga - the style taught by Sri K. Pattabhi Jois.
*Iyengar Yoga - pioneered by B.K.S. Iyengar
*Viniyoga
*Kriya Yoga - yoga of internal movement
*Nada Yoga - yoga of sound
*Indra Devi
*Paramahansa Yogananda
*Yoga Nidra - yoga of divine sleep (a la Vishnu)
*Sahaja Yoga
*Yoga in Daily Life - The system

==History of Yoga==

===Pre-Vedic (ca. 6000 - 3000 BCE [?])===
The history of yoga may go back anywhere from five to eight thousand years ago, depending on the perspective of the historian. It evolved wholly in the land of India, and while it is supposed by some scholars that yogic practices were originally the domain of the indigenous, non-Aryan (and pre-Vedic) peoples, it was first clearly expounded in the great Vedic shastras (religious texts).

Pre-Vedic findings are taken, by some commentators, to show that "yoga" existed in some form well before the establishment of Aryan culture in the north Indian subcontinent.
:A triangular amulet seal uncovered at the Mohenjo-daro archeological excavation site depicts a male, seated on a low platform in a cross legged position, with arms outstretched. His head is crowned with the horns of a water-buffalo. He is surrounded by animals (a fish, an alligator, and a snake) and diverse symbols. The likeness on the seal and understandings of the surrounding culture have led to its widely accepted identification as "''Pashupati''", Lord of the Beasts, a prototype and predecessor of the modern day Hindu god Shiva. The pose is a very familiar one to yogins, representing Shiva much as he is seen today, the meditating ascetic contemplating divine truth in "yoga-posture."
:(Ref. [http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/middle_east/mohenjo_daro.html 1], [http://www.harappa.com/script/parpola8.html#6 2])

===Vedic (ca. 2000-1500 BCE)===
David Frawley, a Vedic scholar, writes: "Yoga can be traced back to the Rig Veda itself, the oldest Hindu text which speaks about yoking our mind and insight to the Sun of Truth. Great teachers of early Yoga include the names of many famous Vedic sages like Vasishta, Yajnavalkya, and Jaigishavya."

Ideas of uniting mind, body and soul in the cosmic one, however, do not find real yogic explication until the most important mystic texts of Hinduism, the Upanishads or Vedanta, commentaries on the Vedas.

===Upanishadic (ca. 800-100 BCE)===
Explicit examples of the concept and terminology of yoga appear in the Upanishads (primarily thirteen principal texts of the Vedanta, or the "End of the Vedas," that are the culmination of all Vedic philosophy)

While protracted discussions of the ultimate, infinite Self, or Atman, and realization of Brahman, are the true legacy of the Upanishads, the first principal Yoga text was the Bhagavad Gita ("The Lord's Song"), also known as Gitopanishad.

In the Maitrayaniya Upanishad (200-300 BCE) yoga surfaces as:
:"Shadanga-Yoga - The uniting discipline of the six limbs (shad-anga), as expounded in the Maitrayaniya-Upanishad: (1) breath control (pranayama), (2) sensory inhibition (pratyahara), (3) meditation (dhyana), (4) concentration (dharana), (5) examination (tarka), and (6) ecstasy (samadhi)."
:Reference: http://www.orientalia.org/term3923.html

In the Katha Upanishad yoga surfaces as:
:"When the five instruments of knowledge stand still, together with the mind and when the intellect does not move, that is called the Supreme State. - III.10
:This, the firm Control of the senses, is what is called yoga. One must then be vigilant; for yoga can be both beneficial and injurious. - III.11"
:"Having received this wisdom taught by the King of Death and the entire process of yoga, Nachiketa became free from impurities and death and attained Brahman. Thus it will be also with any other who knows, in this manner, the inmost Self. - III.18"

====Commentary====
''"In the Kathopanishad there is a hint given to us as to how we can practice Yoga. There are one or two verses in the Kathopanishad which give the sum and substance of the practice of Yoga, which is also the same Yoga explained in greater detail in the system of Patanjali. The Kathopanishad says, in these verses, that the subtle essences of objects are superior to the sensory powers, they are higher in their degree and in quality. Higher than these essences of objects is the mind; higher than the mind is the intellect; higher than the intellect is the cosmic intellect called Mahat. It is also called Hiranyagarbha. Higher than that is the peaceful undifferentiated causal state called Avyakta. Higher than that is supreme Absolute, Purusha. The same Upanishad mentions the system of practice in another verse. The senses have to be rooted in the mind. The mind has to be centered in the intellect. The intellect has to be fixed in the Cosmic Intellect, and the Cosmic Intellect has to be united with the Peaceful Being. Sometimes this Peaceful Being, Shanta-Atman, is identified with the Isvara of the Vedanta. This is how we have to control the mind." ''
:Reference The Essence of The Aitareya and Taittiriya Upanishads by Swami Krishnananda The Divine Life Society Sivananda Ashram, Rishikesh, India [http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/aitt_0.html]
:See also: [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad Wikisources - Aitareya Upanishad], [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad Wikisource - Taittiriya Upanishad]

===Classical (ca. 200 CE)===

====Patanjali's Yoga Sutras====

After the Bhagavad Gita, the next seminal work on Yoga is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. The Yoga Sutras are a compilation of Yogic thought that is largely Raja Yogic in nature, it was codified some time between the 2nd century BC and the 3rd century by Patanjali, and prescribes adherence to "eight limbs" (the sum of which constitute "Ashtanga Yoga") to quiet one's mind and merge with the infinite. These eight limbs not only systematized conventional moral principles espoused by the Gita, but elucidated the practice of Raja Yoga in a more detailed manner. Indeed, his "eight-limbed" path has formed the foundation for Raja Yoga and much of Tantra Yoga (a Hindu deific, Shiva-Shakti yoga system) and Vajrayana Buddhism (Buddhist Tantra Yoga) that came after. It goes as follows:

*Yama (moral codes)
*Niyama (self-purification and study)
*Asana (posture)
*Pranayama (breath control)
*Pratyahara (sense control)
*Dharana (concentration)
*Dhyana (meditation)
*Samadhi (absorption)

Patanjali, whose own life is virtually unknown, had the impact of further spreading in compact form the essence of Raja Yoga. Some legends speak of his being Adinaga, the first snake, the lower half of his body being that of a snake, upon which the great Hindu God Vishnu reclines. Many say that he was the same Patanjali who wrote commentaries on Panini's singular masterwork on Sanskrit grammar. Others speak of the legends of his birth. A few even dispute his existence and attribute the Yoga Sutras to many authors, but this is highly unlikely due to the structural, linguistic and stylistic uniformity of the short work. His base is Hindu Samkhya philosophy and shows itself to have been highly influenced by the Upanishads.

His Yoga Sutras espouse a threefold system for attainment of samadhi through tapas (austerities; discipline; literally "heat"), swadhyaya (self-study) and ishwar-pranidhana (contemplation of God).

While Patanjali accepts the idea of what he terms "ishta-devata" (worship of deities as manifestations of the single Brahman), his overall "ishwar" is not a conventional God with personal form and speaks more to a universal, attributeless Brahman, an impersonal, unknowable, infinite force that is all and transcends all.

Together, the Bhagavad Gita and Yoga Sutras form the theoretical and philosophical base of all yoga. However, as far as Raja Yoga (meditation yoga) goes, it is most precisely captured by Patanjali's Yoga-Sutras.

====450 - 850 CE====
The '''Yoga-bhasya''', Veda Vyasa's commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali could have been written as early as 450 CE. Professor J. H. Woods, places the date of the Yoga-bhasya between 650 CE to 850 CE. Trevor Leggett places the date closer to 600 CE based on a commentary to the Yoga-bhasya published in Sanskrit in 1952 in the Madras Government Oriental Series #94 by Polakam Sri Rama Sastri and S. R. Krishnamurti Sastri. Evidence strongly suggests that this sub-commentary was written by Sankara who lived about 700 CE.

Vacaspati Mishra's '''Tattva Vaisharadi''', a commentary on the Yoga-bhasya was written in ca. 850 CE. An authoritative translation of this work can be found in "The Yoga System of Patanjali" by Professor James Haughton Woods.

:Reference: "Sankara on the Yoga Sutras" Trevor Leggett, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, ISBN: 81-208-1028-7
:Reference: "The Yoga System of Patanjali" James Haughton Woods, Harvard Oriental Series, 1914, (out of print) ISBN:81-208-0577-1 (reprint: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi)

====1350 - 1400 CE====

'''Hatha Yoga Pradipika'''
In the West, outside of Hindu culture, "yoga" is usually understood to refer to "hatha yoga." Hatha Yoga is, however, a particular system propagated by Swami Swatamarama, a yogic sage of the 15th century in India.

After the Bhagavad Gita and Yoga Sutras, the most fundamental text of Yoga is the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, written by Swami Swatamarama, that in great detail lists all the main asanas, pranayama, mudra and bandha that are familiar to today's yoga student. It runs in the line of Hindu yoga (to distinguish from Buddhist and Jain yoga) and is dedicated to Lord Adinath, a name for Lord Shiva (the Hindu god of destruction), who is alleged to have imparted the secret of Hatha Yoga to his divine consort Parvati. It is common for yogins and tantriks of several disciplines to dedicate their practices to a deity under the Hindu ishta-devata concept (see Patanjali's Yoga Sutras) while always striving to achieve beyond that: Brahman. Hindu philosophy in the Vedanta and Yoga streams, as the reader will remember, views only one thing as being ultimately real: Satchidananda Atman, the Existence-Consciousness-Blissful Self. Very Upanishadic in its notions, worship of Gods is a secondary means of focus on the higher being, a conduit to realization of the Divine Ground. Hatha Yoga follows in that vein and thus successfully transcends being particularly grounded in any one religion.

Hatha is a Sanskrit word meaning 'sun' (ha) and 'moon' (tha), representing opposing energies: hot and cold, male and female, positive and negative, similar but not completely analogous to yin and yang. Hatha yoga attempts to balance mind and body via physical exercises, or "asanas", controlled breathing, and the calming of the mind through relaxation and meditation. Asanas teach poise, balance & strength and were originally (and still) practiced to improve the body's physical health and clear the mind in preparation for meditation in the pursuit of enlightenment. "Asana" means "immovable", i.e. static, and often confused with the dynamic 108 natya karanas described in Natya Shastra and, along with the elements of Bhakti Yoga, is embodied in the contemporary form of Bharatanatyam.

By balancing two streams, often known as ida (mental) and pingala (bodily) currents, the sushumna nadi (current of the Self) is said to rise, opening various chakras (cosmic power points within the body, starting from the base of the spine and ending right above the head) until samadhi is attained. Ida and pingala are represented in the dynamism of natya yoga by lasya (female) and tandava (male) aspects, and bear direct reference to the Taoist dualism.

By forging a powerful depth of concentration and mastery of the body and mind, Hatha Yoga practices seek to still the mental waters and allow for apprehension of oneself as that which one always was, Brahman. Hatha Yoga is essentially a manual for scientifically taking one's body through stages of control to a point at which one-pointed focus on the unmanifested Brahman is possible: it is said to take its practicioner to the peaks of Raja Yoga.

In the West, hatha yoga has become wildly popular as a purely physical exercise regimen divorced of its original purpose, and thus, devoid of its original efficacy. Currently, it is estimated that about 30 million Americans practice hatha yoga. But in the Indian subcontinent the traditional practice is still to be found. The guru-shishya (teacher-student) relationship that exists without need for sanction from non-religious institutions, and which gave rise to all the great yogins who made way into international consciousness in the 20th century, has been maintained in Indian, Nepalese, and some Tibetan circles.

In India, whose Hindu population combines to a staggering 800 million, Yoga is a daily part of life. It is common to see people performing Surya Namaskar (a yogic set of asanas and pranayam dedicated to Surya, the Hindu God of the Sun) in the morning or speaking about food diets and body therapy entirely based on Yoga or the Hindu healing system of Ayurveda. The age-old tradition of Yoga has continued uninterrupted by the its popularity in the west (although more established schools like the Bihar School of Yoga work from within India to produce Yoga texts to send abroad).

In addition, hundreds and thousands sanyasins (renunciates) and sadhus (Hindu monks) wander in and out of city temples, village country sides and are to be found smattered all across the foothills of the Himalayas and the Vindhya Range of central India. For India's holy-men, Yoga is as fundamental as lifeblood. To see a man meditating at the steps of a temple, or even wondering contemplatively on the roadside, is not uncommon even to the more Westernized crowds. It is the same in Tibet, where the Buddhist establishment's lifestyle is permeated with the Yoga or yogic practices, which is ultimately not a once-a-day routine, but a constant immersion in self-discovery.
:See also: [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatha_Yoga_Pradipika Wikisource - Hatha Yoga Pradipika]

Western development of yoga has taken less of a spiritual approach and focused more on the mind/body connection. While Yoga is a religion to many, most practitioners in the west separate yoga from their spiritual beliefs, causing yoga to strictly stay within the containment of an exercise class or just within the "keeping healthy" aspect of life.

==Crowley on Yoga==

“Yoga means Union.”
- Aleister Crowley, Eight Lectures on Yoga.

While Liber O gives the essentials of magick practice, giving Golden Dawn techniques of working with the subtle levels of energy and magick light, in Liber E we find a series of basic techniques for training the mind and body in the practice of yogic disciplines. Taken together, these two manuals form the foundations of practice to establish the solid base of a pyramid of magick and yoga that will, with persistence, discipline and integrity, eventually lead one to the heights of attainment.

The basic outline of yogic practices given in Liber E are further elaborated upon in Crowley’s Book 4 Part I, as well as his smaller work Eight Lectures on Yoga. In discussing the teachings of the “Great Men” of the past, Crowley writes in Book 4:

“The methods advised by all these people have a startling resemblance to one another. They recommend "virtue" (of various kinds), solitude, absence of excitement, moderation in diet, and finally a practice which some call prayer and some call meditation. (The former four may turn out on examination to be merely conditions favourable to the last.)”

“It is by freeing the mind from external influences, whether casual or emotional, that it obtains power to see somewhat of the truth of things.”

Even more succinct, in Eight Lectures on Yoga, Crowley informs us of the “whole of the technique of Yoga”:

“Sit Still. Stop thinking. Shut up. Get out!”

The brilliance of Crowley’s adaptation of yoga is the disposal of countless unnecessary superstitions, cultural trappings, and misinformation to reveal the pristine glory of systematic set of physical and mental exercises which will aid the magician in concentration, control of force, and increased vitality and health.

The Yoga Sutras, written by the sage Patanjali, first outlined the path of ashtanga or “eight limbed yoga” as a set of guidelines on how to live one’s life, with attention to diet, self-discipline, and ethical and moral considerations.

The first limb is yama, a set of five ethical standards to be followed: ahimsa (non-violence), satya (speaking the truth), asteya (non-stealing), brahmacharya (sexual continence), and aparigraha (non-attachment). Crowley redefined yama to reflect the changes in consciousness and responsibility which humanity has progressed to, by saying “Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law. That is Yama.”

The second limb is niyama, traditionally interpreted as five observances of self-discipline and witnessing of the sacred in one’s life. These are saucha (cleanliness); samtosa (contentment); tapas (spiritual austerities); svadhyaya (introspection); and Isvara pranidhana (surrender to God). In Eight Lectures on Yoga, Crowley interprets this limb generally as “virtue,” expanding them from five to seven virtues which correspond to seven sacred planets of the ancients. Saturn represents the virtue of discipline and endurance, as well as embracing the Trance of Sorrow; Jupiter the “vital, creative, genial element of the cosmos” as the selflessness of universal love, and the Trance of Joy; Mars stands for the virtue of energy, the ability to conquer the obstacles on the path, in particular the physical obstacles, as well as courage and passion; unto the Sun is ascribed the virtue of harmony, the “centralization of the faculties, their control, their motivation;” to Venus is given the “ecstatic acceptance of all possible experience and the transcendental assumption of all particular experience into the one experience;” Mercury represents the virtue of adaptability and indifference, the adroitness and flexibility that is requisite in both the mind and body of the yogin to master the path; while finally, the Moon is the purity of aspiration, as well as the many siddhis or magick powers which will arise. Crowley also adds two further planetary associations, for Uranus and Neptune. The niyama for Uranus is “the discovery of the True Will,” further stating that this niyama “is the most important of the tasks of the Yogi, because, until he has achieved it, he can have no idea who he is or where he is going.” For Neptune, he attributes spiritual intuition, the “imaginative faculty, the shadowing forth of the nature of the illimitable light,” as well as a strong dose of humour. Finally, for Pluto we are told that he is “the utmost sentinel of all; of him it is not wise to speak,” after which he explains that this is because “nothing at all is known about him.” Perhaps it is for some future yogin to discover the niyama of this distant chunk of ice!

The third and fourth limbs of ashtanga are asana, the various postures necessary for meditation, and pranayama, the control of breath. Whereas traditional yoga utilizes several sets of asanas for practice and mastery, Crowley recommended selecting one position and mastering it. “The real object of Asana is control of the muscular system, conscious and unconscious, so that no messages from the body can reach the mind.” Crowley points out the many health benefits of asana, including

“The conquest of Asana makes for endurance. If you keep in constant practice, you ought to find that about ten minutes in the posture will rest you as much as a good night's sleep.”

Crowley defined pranayama as “control of force,” again cutting through profuse amounts of mystic obfuscation in the traditional literature by describing the process thus:

“This simply means that you get a stop watch, and choose a cycle of breathing out and breathing in. Both operations should be made as complete as possible. The muscular system must be taxed to its utmost to assist the expansion and contraction of the lungs.”

He also describes the classic results of pranayama practice: perspiration, automatic rigidity, buchari-siddhi (“jumping about like a frog”), and levitation.

The fifth and sixth limbs are pratyahara, the withdrawal of senses, and dharana, concentration. The former is described in Eight Lectures as “introspection, but it also means a certain type of psychological experience,” citing the direct experience of feeling that you do not have a nose as an example. Going into much more detail in Book 4, he describes the process of simply watching the mind think. With dharana, we move into concentration proper. Here Liber E gives several practices for training the mind to concentrate one-pointedly, such as visualizing the elemental tattvas for a minute or more, and eventually working up to more complex images. Other practices given in Eight Lectures for concentration include Liber Astarte, Liber III vel Jugorum, and the practice “useful when walking in a christian city” of saying Apo Pantaos Kakodaimonos, with an “outward and downward sweep of the arm,” anytime one passes a person in “religious garb.”

Dyana and Samadhi, the seventh and eigth limbs of yoga, are traditionally associated with “meditation” proper, and ecstasy, respectively. One necessarily leads to the other, and samadhi is the crown of the system, the chrism of the yogin. In dyana is a development of the introspection of pratyahara and the concentration of dharana, resulting in the single minded force of dhyana. This process, taken to conclusion, results in the ecstasy of Samadhi. In The Soldier and the Hunchback (Liber 148), Crowley writes of this experience:

“Not what Christians call faith, be sure! But what (possibly) the forgers of the Epistles – those eminent mystics! – meant by faith. What I call Samadhi!”

“Ah, say the adepts, Samadhi is not the end, but the beginning. You must regard Samadhi as the normal state of mind which enables you to begin your researches, just as waking is the state from which you rise to Samadhi, sleep the state from which you rose to waking. And only from Sammasamadhi – continuous trance of the right kind – can you rise up as it were on tiptoe and peer through the clouds unto the mountains.”

==External links==
* [http://www.yrec.org/ Yoga Research and Education Center]
* [http://www.orientalia.org/dic1.html International Yoga Dictionary]
* [http://www.3ho.org 3ho.org: Kundalini Yoga]
* [http://www.sacredspaceyogasanctuary.com 'Sacred Space' Kundalini Meditation]
* [http://www.patanjali.ch patanjali.ch]
* [http://www.sahajayoga.org Sahaja Yoga]
* [http://bharatanatyam.medhahari.com/ Bhakti Yoga in Bharatanatyam]
* [http://www.archive.org/movies/movieslisting-browse.php?collection=opensource_movies&cat=bharatanatyam Collection of streaming videos illustrating Natya Yoga]
* [http://www.religiousbook.net/Books/Online_books/Pr/Practices_25.html Religiousbook.net article on Hatha Yoga]

==References==

Large portions of this text was originally taken from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga Yoga]''. Retrieved Sept. 22, 2004.

Yoga

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'''Yoga''', meaning ''union'' or ''yoking'' in Sanskrit, is the primary focus of Hinduism's diverse religious activities. YOGA is a science of the body, the mind, the consciousness and the soul. Yoga is a teaching of wisdom and knowledge which has been transmitted to mankind from the great Yogis and Rishis of ancient times, though its geographical origin lies in India, it is universal, all-valid, eternal knowledge.

There are several forms and paths of yoga that include meditation (Raja Yoga), devotional prayer (Bhakti Yoga), selfless service to others (Karma Yoga), practices for discrimination of truth and reality (Jnana Yoga), and even meditational forms of exercise and bodily upkeep (Hatha Yoga, a part of Raja Yoga). Yoga, as condified by Patanjali, is also one of the six major schools of Hindu philosophy and as such specifically refers to Raja Yoga, the ''royal'' path of divine meditation on the one Brahman.

Yoga is indicative of a broad range of practices that aim to, through physical, mental and spiritual activities, focus the individual on the true essence of reality, to achieve moksha or samadhi, liberation and enlightenment. A man who has taken up successful practice of Yoga is called a Yogi (also spelled Yogin), a woman Yogini.

==Bhagavad Gita==
The Bhagavad Gita is the archetype of Yoga scripture. Capturing the essence and at the same time going into detail about the various Yogas and their philosophies, it was the groundstone to Yogic thought, and constantly refers to itself as such, the "Scripture of Yoga" (see the final verses of each chapter).

It is spoken in the format of Lord Krishna, self-identified as a manifestation of Brahman (the impersonal, supreme force of the cosmos, the Divine Ground), to Arjuna, a warrior and friend who is loathe to go to battle that would involve his killing his own gurus (teachers) and family members. The book is contained within the Mahabharata, and is thought to have been written some time between the 5th and the 2nd century BC.

Krishna summarizes the Yogas through eighteen chapters. Yoga can fundamentally be said to comprise four main streams: Raja Yoga (psycho-physical meditation), Bhakti Yoga (devotion and love), Karma Yoga (selfless action), and Jnana (pronounced ''gyaan'' in the Northern states and ''jnyaana'' in the South of India) Yoga (self-transcending knowledge). Other forms that exist today sprang up long after the Bhagavad Gita and Yoga Sutras (to be discussed below) and are all essentially forms of Raja Yoga.

While each path differs, their fundamental goal is one and the same: to realize Brahman (the Divine Ground), as being the only truth, that the body is temporal, but the soul (Atman) is infinite and one with Brahman. Yoga's aim (nirvana, Moksha) is essentially to escape from the cycle of reincarnation through realization of oneness with the ultimate reality.

Here are some quotations from Lord Krishna that make up history's first real yoga text and give comprehensive definitions of the '''four principal Yogas''':

==On all Yoga in general==
:"When the mind comes to rest, restrained by the practice of yoga, and when beholding the Self, by the self, he is content in the Self." (B.G., Chapter 6, Verse 20) " He who finds his happiness within, his delight within, and his light within, this yogi attains the bliss of Brahman, becoming Brahman."

===On Raja Yoga===
:" Establishing a firm seat for himself in a clean place... having directed his mind to a single object, with his thought and the activity of the senses controlled, he should practice yoga for the purpose of self-realization. Holding the body, head and neck erect, motionless and steady, gazing at the tip of his own nose and not looking in any direction, with quieted mind, banishing fear, established in the brahmacharin vow of celibacy, controlling the mind, with thoughts fixed on Me, he should sit, concentrated, devoted to Me. Thus, continually disciplining himself, the yogin whose mind is subdued goes to nirvana, to supreme peace, to union with Me." (B.G., Chapter 6, Verses 11-15)

===On Bhakti Yoga===
:".... those who, renouncing all actions in Me, and regarding Me as the Supreme, worship me... of those whose thoughts have entered into Me, I am soon the deliverer from the ocean of death and transmigration, Arjuna. Keep your mind on Me alone, your intellect on Me. Thus you shall dwell in me hereafter." (B.G., Chapter 12, Verses 6-8) " And he who serves me with the yoga of unswerving devotion, transcending these qualities [binary opposites, like good and evil, pain and pleasure] is ready for absorption in Brahman." (B.G. Chapter 14, Verse 26)

===On Karma Yoga===
:" With the body, with the mind, with the intellect, even merely with the senses, the yogins perform action toward self-purification, having abandoned attachment. He who is disciplined in yoga, having abandoned the fruit of action, attains steady peace..." (B.G. Chapter 5, Verses 11-12)

===On Jnana Yoga===
:" When he perceives the various states of being as resting in the One, and from That alone spreading out, then he attains Brahman. / They who know, through the eye of knowledge, the distinction between the field and the knower of the field, as well as the liberation of beings from material nature, go to the Supreme." (B.G. Chapter 15, Verse 31 / Verse 35)

Raja Yoga is, in general, stilling of the mind and body through meditative techniques, geared at realizing one's true nature. Bhakti Yoga is simply love and devotion, epitomized today in such practices as worship of various Hindu deities, finding salvation in love of Christ, etc. Karma Yoga is essentially acting, or doing one's duties in life, without desire or expectation of reward, a sort of constant sacrifice of action to the Supreme. It includes, but is not limited to, dedication to one's chosen profession and its perfection to God and all sorts of community service, since they are inherently done without thought of personal gain. Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what is not, what is eternal and what is not eternal.

==Definition==
Cappeller's Sanskrit-English Dictionary defines '''Yoga''' as:
m. ''collection or concentration of the mind, meditation, contemplation'' ([http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/indologie/tamil/cap_search.html])

==Darshanas==
One of the six ''darshanas'' (schools) of Vedic/Hindu philosophy, and as such specifically refers to ''Raja Yoga'', the royal path of divine meditation on the one Brahman. A man who has taken up successful practice of Yoga is called a Yogi (also spelled Yogin), a woman Yogini. Several other forms of yoga exist within Hinduism including those of selfless action (''Karma Yoga''), selfless love (''Bhakti Yoga''), and discriminatory contemplation (''Jnana Yoga'').

Yogic philosophy is primarily Upanishadic with roots in Samkhya, and some scholars see some influence by Buddhism. It is a universal philosophy that enjoins the practitioner to pursue his or her own path to enlightenment, depending on personality and inclination. It is very much in line with its Vedic roots and the traditional pluralism of Hinduism. For this reason, it is easy for a "Christian", for example, to see Jesus the Christ as his or her own ishwar-devata. "Christ the Yogi" is not an uncommon concept in the world of Yoga today. Most religions, when viewed through their ethical and spiritual standpoints without the trappings of dogma, are easily reconcilable with Yoga philosophy in general because of its transcendental message.

== Tantra ==

While the Bhagavad Gita, Yoga Sutras and Hatha Yoga Pradipika are clearly founded on Upanishadic and Brahmanical thought, much of Yoga has been influenced by and expanded into Tantra. Tantra is more ritual based, having its roots in the first millennium CE, and incorporates much more of a deist base. Almost entirely founded on Shiva and Shakti worship, Tantra visualizes the ultimate Brahman as Param Shiva, manifested through Shiva (the passive, masculine force of Lord Shiva) and Shakti (the active, creative feminine force of his consort, variously known as Ma Kali, Durga, Shakti, Parvati and others). It focuses on the kundalini, a three and a half-coiled 'snake' of spiritual energy at the base of the spine that rises through the chakras until union between Shiva and Shakti (also known as samadhi) is achieved.

It views the body as means, rather than as obstruction, to understanding, and as such incorporates mantra (Sanskrit prayers, often to gods, that are repeated), yantra (complex symbols representing Shakti in her various forms through intricate geometric figures) and rituals that range from simple murti (statue representations of deities) or image worship to meditation on a corpse! While much tantra certainly, through its many texts (see kaularvatantra, mahanirvana tantra) and teachers (e.g. Abhinava Gupta, Ramakrishna [a saint who practiced Kali bhakti, Advaita Vedanta and tantra, etc.) seems odd and highly arcane at times, it is transparent as being completely yogic. Also, injunctions are made that most people are not suitable for Tantra, especially those of pashu-bhava (animal disposition). This implies that anyone who has not observed celibacy, honesty, respect of elders, bodily cleansing, ritual cleansing through prayer, and various other processes for up to twelve years at a time, and still retains base desires, greed, sexual motivations, etc. one is not fit to practice Tantra. For this reason, even more stringently than other Yogas, Tantra, both Hindu and Buddhist, remains a strictly Guru-initiated system that as yet finds few true adepts outside of India.

==The Yoga Sutra and its followers==

While meditative practices like asanas (postures) and pranayama (breath control) existed long before Patanjali, his brilliant eight-limbed system was what became the standard for almost all yoga schools that followed. Raja Yoga, being difficult to achieve (one must be focused on the Supreme), several Guru (teacher) lines came to make firm methodologies of realizing it.

:A side note on the Guru: Emphasized by all schools of yoga as indispensable, the Guru takes on quasi-divine proportions. Acknowledged as a siddha (adept) who has attained the eight siddhis (powers) afforded by yoga (they range from transportation of the mind to anywhere into the universe to the only truly desirable power, samadhi), the Guru guides the shisya (student) through yogic discipline from the beginning. When doing yoga, the student is urged to look long and hard for a sadguru (True Teacher) and then devote himself from imbibing that Guru's learning.

The most famous of the traditional Hindu schools of yoga, and the basis for nearly all modern systems, is Hatha Yoga. It is representative of all non-Bhakti-Karma-Jnana Yoga that has become so popular in the west today.

==Teachers==
Beginning with the arrival of Swami Vivekananda in 1893, there has been a steady flow of learned teachers that have brought the transcendental message of Yoga to the West. While the influence of these Yogins is deeply inscribed into the surface of the modern yogic ethos, both in India and America, a proliferation of 'yoga clinics' and non-spiritual yoga systems has been seen in the West, especially in the United States. While many Americans view it as an exercise system that simply enhances one's health, a much greater number in India (and a minority in America) still see it as it has been for over 5,000 years, whether in the Bhagavad Gita, the Yoga Sutras, the writings of the Dalai Lama, or the "Yoga Boom" of the twentieth century, a system of spirituality universal in its application.

=== The Great Modern Yogins ===

First brought into America as early as the 1890s by the great yogin and disciple of Shri Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda, the Hindu representative in the Chicago Parliament of World Religions, Yoga has also been transported in the arms of many other great yogins and formed into stratified schools seeking to propagate Yoga in its great spiritual context. But these teachers have made their imprint in both India and America, and continue to serve as modern embodiments of Yoga.

Swami Rama Tirtha, who came from a deep yoga tradition in the Himalayas of India, was the founding spiritual head of the Himalayan Institute. He was the first yogin to come to America and be subjected to the scrutiny of modern science. Among other things, he stunned doctors by stopping the beat of his heart completely for several minutes.

Many modern schools of Hatha Yoga derive from the school of Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, who taught in Mysore, India from 1931 until his death in 1993. Among his students prominent in popularizing Yoga in the West were Sri K. Pattabhi Jois, B.K.S. Iyengar, Indra Devi and Krishnamacharya's son T.K.V. Desikachar. Desikachar founded the Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandiram in Madras (now Chennai), with the aim of
making available the heritage of yoga as taught by Krishnamacharya.

Other great yogins are Paramahansa Yogananda, practitioner of Kriya Yoga who arrived in America as a powerful example of the universality of Yoga. Sporting a cross, he came to the U.S. with the Hindu Bhagavad Gita in one hand and the Christian New Testament in the other, speaking to his disciples in pluralist ideology with Yoga as the binding force.

Sri Aurobindo, referred to as Aurobindo Ghosh by those who consider him as merely a philosopher rather than an Avatar, was not simply an intellectual genius born in West Bengal and educated in the best university in England. His masterful translations and interpretations of Hindu and Yogic scriptures are mystic and esoteric, and often are the opposite of what you will find in Max Muller's and other purely intellectual translations of the sacred Sanskrit texts, among which his translations/commentaries on the Hindu texts of the Upanishads and Gita are mystic in nature, and his epic Hindu/Yoga poem Savitri is a treasure of Hindu Yogic literature, formally being the longest poem ever written in English. Beyond this, his personal life is a fascinating testimony of the life of a true yogin. After the goddess Sri entered his being, he became Sri Aurobindo. Besides his influence and scholarly writing on Yoga, he also founded Sri Aurobindo Ashram in Pondicherry, that continues to propagate the practice of Integral Yoga, which is a Tantric synthesis of the four main Yogas (Karma, Jnana, Bhakti and Raja).

Gopi Krishna was a Kashmiri office worker and spiritual seeker who was born in 1903, and wrote autobiographical accounts of his spiritual experiences with Yoga. His most famous one is "Kundalini": Path to Higher Consciousness." Gopi Krishna's graphic accounts of his experiences stand out as among the clearest journals documenting a spiritual transformation. They are highly recommended as reading for anyone interested in Yogic phenomena.

Swami Sivananda (born in Pattamadai, Tamil Nadu, India in 1887), one of the greatest yoga masters of 20th century has authored over 200 highly inspiring books on yoga. Sivananda has also established Sivananda ashram of Rishikesh, India and is the founder of Divine Life Society. His disciple, Swami Satyananda (born in Almorah, Uttar Pradesh, India in 1923), has established International Yoga Fellowship movement, Bihar School of Yoga and Bihar Yoga Bharati, world's first university on yoga. The university is now headed by his disciple, Swami Niranjananda.

Mahamandaleshwar Paramhans Swami Maheshwarananda (Swamiji) comes from Rajasthan, India, and has been living in Vienna, Austria since 1972. Swamiji is the author of the scientific master-system Yoga in Daily Life and founder of the International Sri Deep Madhavananda Ashram Fellowship and ''Yoga in Daily Life'' ashrams and centres worldwide. He dedicated his whole life to help humanity through yoga and to evoke the ancient spiritual heritage of Sat Sanatana Dharma (the True Eternal Faith, ''sanatana dharma'' being another name for Hinduism).

Some modern styles of Yoga popular in America, Australia, Europe, India:

*Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga - the style taught by Sri K. Pattabhi Jois.
*Iyengar Yoga - pioneered by B.K.S. Iyengar
*Viniyoga
*Kriya Yoga - yoga of internal movement
*Nada Yoga - yoga of sound
*Indra Devi
*Paramahansa Yogananda
*Yoga Nidra - yoga of divine sleep (a la Vishnu)
*Sahaja Yoga
*Yoga in Daily Life - The system

==History of Yoga==

===Pre-Vedic (ca. 6000 - 3000 BCE [?])===
The history of yoga may go back anywhere from five to eight thousand years ago, depending on the perspective of the historian. It evolved wholly in the land of India, and while it is supposed by some scholars that yogic practices were originally the domain of the indigenous, non-Aryan (and pre-Vedic) peoples, it was first clearly expounded in the great Vedic shastras (religious texts).

Pre-Vedic findings are taken, by some commentators, to show that "yoga" existed in some form well before the establishment of Aryan culture in the north Indian subcontinent.
:A triangular amulet seal uncovered at the Mohenjo-daro archeological excavation site depicts a male, seated on a low platform in a cross legged position, with arms outstretched. His head is crowned with the horns of a water-buffalo. He is surrounded by animals (a fish, an alligator, and a snake) and diverse symbols. The likeness on the seal and understandings of the surrounding culture have led to its widely accepted identification as "''Pashupati''", Lord of the Beasts, a prototype and predecessor of the modern day Hindu god Shiva. The pose is a very familiar one to yogins, representing Shiva much as he is seen today, the meditating ascetic contemplating divine truth in "yoga-posture."
:(Ref. [http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/middle_east/mohenjo_daro.html 1], [http://www.harappa.com/script/parpola8.html#6 2])

===Vedic (ca. 2000-1500 BCE)===
David Frawley, a Vedic scholar, writes: "Yoga can be traced back to the Rig Veda itself, the oldest Hindu text which speaks about yoking our mind and insight to the Sun of Truth. Great teachers of early Yoga include the names of many famous Vedic sages like Vasishta, Yajnavalkya, and Jaigishavya."

Ideas of uniting mind, body and soul in the cosmic one, however, do not find real yogic explication until the most important mystic texts of Hinduism, the Upanishads or Vedanta, commentaries on the Vedas.

===Upanishadic (ca. 800-100 BCE)===
Explicit examples of the concept and terminology of yoga appear in the Upanishads (primarily thirteen principal texts of the Vedanta, or the "End of the Vedas," that are the culmination of all Vedic philosophy)

While protracted discussions of the ultimate, infinite Self, or Atman, and realization of Brahman, are the true legacy of the Upanishads, the first principal Yoga text was the Bhagavad Gita ("The Lord's Song"), also known as Gitopanishad.

In the Maitrayaniya Upanishad (200-300 BCE) yoga surfaces as:
:"Shadanga-Yoga - The uniting discipline of the six limbs (shad-anga), as expounded in the Maitrayaniya-Upanishad: (1) breath control (pranayama), (2) sensory inhibition (pratyahara), (3) meditation (dhyana), (4) concentration (dharana), (5) examination (tarka), and (6) ecstasy (samadhi)."
:Reference: http://www.orientalia.org/term3923.html

In the Katha Upanishad yoga surfaces as:
:"When the five instruments of knowledge stand still, together with the mind and when the intellect does not move, that is called the Supreme State. - III.10
:This, the firm Control of the senses, is what is called yoga. One must then be vigilant; for yoga can be both beneficial and injurious. - III.11"
:"Having received this wisdom taught by the King of Death and the entire process of yoga, Nachiketa became free from impurities and death and attained Brahman. Thus it will be also with any other who knows, in this manner, the inmost Self. - III.18"

====Commentary====
''"In the Kathopanishad there is a hint given to us as to how we can practice Yoga. There are one or two verses in the Kathopanishad which give the sum and substance of the practice of Yoga, which is also the same Yoga explained in greater detail in the system of Patanjali. The Kathopanishad says, in these verses, that the subtle essences of objects are superior to the sensory powers, they are higher in their degree and in quality. Higher than these essences of objects is the mind; higher than the mind is the intellect; higher than the intellect is the cosmic intellect called Mahat. It is also called Hiranyagarbha. Higher than that is the peaceful undifferentiated causal state called Avyakta. Higher than that is supreme Absolute, Purusha. The same Upanishad mentions the system of practice in another verse. The senses have to be rooted in the mind. The mind has to be centered in the intellect. The intellect has to be fixed in the Cosmic Intellect, and the Cosmic Intellect has to be united with the Peaceful Being. Sometimes this Peaceful Being, Shanta-Atman, is identified with the Isvara of the Vedanta. This is how we have to control the mind." ''
:Reference The Essence of The Aitareya and Taittiriya Upanishads by Swami Krishnananda The Divine Life Society Sivananda Ashram, Rishikesh, India [http://www.swami-krishnananda.org/aitt_0.html]
:See also: [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aitareya_Upanishad Wikisources - Aitareya Upanishad], [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taittiriya_Upanishad Wikisource - Taittiriya Upanishad]

===Classical (ca. 200 CE)===

====Patanjali's Yoga Sutras====

After the Bhagavad Gita, the next seminal work on Yoga is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. The Yoga Sutras are a compilation of Yogic thought that is largely Raja Yogic in nature, it was codified some time between the 2nd century BC and the 3rd century by Patanjali, and prescribes adherence to "eight limbs" (the sum of which constitute "Ashtanga Yoga") to quiet one's mind and merge with the infinite. These eight limbs not only systematized conventional moral principles espoused by the Gita, but elucidated the practice of Raja Yoga in a more detailed manner. Indeed, his "eight-limbed" path has formed the foundation for Raja Yoga and much of Tantra Yoga (a Hindu deific, Shiva-Shakti yoga system) and Vajrayana Buddhism (Buddhist Tantra Yoga) that came after. It goes as follows:

*Yama (moral codes)
*Niyama (self-purification and study)
*Asana (posture)
*Pranayama (breath control)
*Pratyahara (sense control)
*Dharana (concentration)
*Dhyana (meditation)
*Samadhi (absorption)

Patanjali, whose own life is virtually unknown, had the impact of further spreading in compact form the essence of Raja Yoga. Some legends speak of his being Adinaga, the first snake, the lower half of his body being that of a snake, upon which the great Hindu God Vishnu reclines. Many say that he was the same Patanjali who wrote commentaries on Panini's singular masterwork on Sanskrit grammar. Others speak of the legends of his birth. A few even dispute his existence and attribute the Yoga Sutras to many authors, but this is highly unlikely due to the structural, linguistic and stylistic uniformity of the short work. His base is Hindu Samkhya philosophy and shows itself to have been highly influenced by the Upanishads.

His Yoga Sutras espouse a threefold system for attainment of samadhi through tapas (austerities; discipline; literally "heat"), swadhyaya (self-study) and ishwar-pranidhana (contemplation of God).

While Patanjali accepts the idea of what he terms "ishta-devata" (worship of deities as manifestations of the single Brahman), his overall "ishwar" is not a conventional God with personal form and speaks more to a universal, attributeless Brahman, an impersonal, unknowable, infinite force that is all and transcends all.

Together, the Bhagavad Gita and Yoga Sutras form the theoretical and philosophical base of all yoga. However, as far as Raja Yoga (meditation yoga) goes, it is most precisely captured by Patanjali's Yoga-Sutras.

====450 - 850 CE====
The '''Yoga-bhasya''', Veda Vyasa's commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali could have been written as early as 450 CE. Professor J. H. Woods, places the date of the Yoga-bhasya between 650 CE to 850 CE. Trevor Leggett places the date closer to 600 CE based on a commentary to the Yoga-bhasya published in Sanskrit in 1952 in the Madras Government Oriental Series #94 by Polakam Sri Rama Sastri and S. R. Krishnamurti Sastri. Evidence strongly suggests that this sub-commentary was written by Sankara who lived about 700 CE.

Vacaspati Mishra's '''Tattva Vaisharadi''', a commentary on the Yoga-bhasya was written in ca. 850 CE. An authoritative translation of this work can be found in "The Yoga System of Patanjali" by Professor James Haughton Woods.

:Reference: "Sankara on the Yoga Sutras" Trevor Leggett, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, ISBN: 81-208-1028-7
:Reference: "The Yoga System of Patanjali" James Haughton Woods, Harvard Oriental Series, 1914, (out of print) ISBN:81-208-0577-1 (reprint: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi)

====1350 - 1400 CE====

'''Hatha Yoga Pradipika'''
In the West, outside of Hindu culture, "yoga" is usually understood to refer to "hatha yoga." Hatha Yoga is, however, a particular system propagated by Swami Swatamarama, a yogic sage of the 15th century in India.

After the Bhagavad Gita and Yoga Sutras, the most fundamental text of Yoga is the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, written by Swami Swatamarama, that in great detail lists all the main asanas, pranayama, mudra and bandha that are familiar to today's yoga student. It runs in the line of Hindu yoga (to distinguish from Buddhist and Jain yoga) and is dedicated to Lord Adinath, a name for Lord Shiva (the Hindu god of destruction), who is alleged to have imparted the secret of Hatha Yoga to his divine consort Parvati. It is common for yogins and tantriks of several disciplines to dedicate their practices to a deity under the Hindu ishta-devata concept (see Patanjali's Yoga Sutras) while always striving to achieve beyond that: Brahman. Hindu philosophy in the Vedanta and Yoga streams, as the reader will remember, views only one thing as being ultimately real: Satchidananda Atman, the Existence-Consciousness-Blissful Self. Very Upanishadic in its notions, worship of Gods is a secondary means of focus on the higher being, a conduit to realization of the Divine Ground. Hatha Yoga follows in that vein and thus successfully transcends being particularly grounded in any one religion.

Hatha is a Sanskrit word meaning 'sun' (ha) and 'moon' (tha), representing opposing energies: hot and cold, male and female, positive and negative, similar but not completely analogous to yin and yang. Hatha yoga attempts to balance mind and body via physical exercises, or "asanas", controlled breathing, and the calming of the mind through relaxation and meditation. Asanas teach poise, balance & strength and were originally (and still) practiced to improve the body's physical health and clear the mind in preparation for meditation in the pursuit of enlightenment. "Asana" means "immovable", i.e. static, and often confused with the dynamic 108 natya karanas described in Natya Shastra and, along with the elements of Bhakti Yoga, is embodied in the contemporary form of Bharatanatyam.

By balancing two streams, often known as ida (mental) and pingala (bodily) currents, the sushumna nadi (current of the Self) is said to rise, opening various chakras (cosmic power points within the body, starting from the base of the spine and ending right above the head) until samadhi is attained. Ida and pingala are represented in the dynamism of natya yoga by lasya (female) and tandava (male) aspects, and bear direct reference to the Taoist dualism.

By forging a powerful depth of concentration and mastery of the body and mind, Hatha Yoga practices seek to still the mental waters and allow for apprehension of oneself as that which one always was, Brahman. Hatha Yoga is essentially a manual for scientifically taking one's body through stages of control to a point at which one-pointed focus on the unmanifested Brahman is possible: it is said to take its practicioner to the peaks of Raja Yoga.

In the West, hatha yoga has become wildly popular as a purely physical exercise regimen divorced of its original purpose, and thus, devoid of its original efficacy. Currently, it is estimated that about 30 million Americans practice hatha yoga. But in the Indian subcontinent the traditional practice is still to be found. The guru-shishya (teacher-student) relationship that exists without need for sanction from non-religious institutions, and which gave rise to all the great yogins who made way into international consciousness in the 20th century, has been maintained in Indian, Nepalese, and some Tibetan circles.

In India, whose Hindu population combines to a staggering 800 million, Yoga is a daily part of life. It is common to see people performing Surya Namaskar (a yogic set of asanas and pranayam dedicated to Surya, the Hindu God of the Sun) in the morning or speaking about food diets and body therapy entirely based on Yoga or the Hindu healing system of Ayurveda. The age-old tradition of Yoga has continued uninterrupted by the its popularity in the west (although more established schools like the Bihar School of Yoga work from within India to produce Yoga texts to send abroad).

In addition, hundreds and thousands sanyasins (renunciates) and sadhus (Hindu monks) wander in and out of city temples, village country sides and are to be found smattered all across the foothills of the Himalayas and the Vindhya Range of central India. For India's holy-men, Yoga is as fundamental as lifeblood. To see a man meditating at the steps of a temple, or even wondering contemplatively on the roadside, is not uncommon even to the more Westernized crowds. It is the same in Tibet, where the Buddhist establishment's lifestyle is permeated with the Yoga or yogic practices, which is ultimately not a once-a-day routine, but a constant immersion in self-discovery.
:See also: [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hatha_Yoga_Pradipika Wikisource - Hatha Yoga Pradipika]

Western development of yoga has taken less of a spiritual approach and focused more on the mind/body connection. While Yoga is a religion to many, most practitioners in the west separate yoga from their spiritual beliefs, causing yoga to strictly stay within the containment of an exercise class or just within the "keeping healthy" aspect of life.

==Crowley on Yoga==

==External links==
* [http://www.yrec.org/ Yoga Research and Education Center]
* [http://www.orientalia.org/dic1.html International Yoga Dictionary]
* [http://www.3ho.org 3ho.org: Kundalini Yoga]
* [http://www.sacredspaceyogasanctuary.com 'Sacred Space' Kundalini Meditation]
* [http://www.patanjali.ch patanjali.ch]
* [http://www.sahajayoga.org Sahaja Yoga]
* [http://bharatanatyam.medhahari.com/ Bhakti Yoga in Bharatanatyam]
* [http://www.archive.org/movies/movieslisting-browse.php?collection=opensource_movies&cat=bharatanatyam Collection of streaming videos illustrating Natya Yoga]
* [http://www.religiousbook.net/Books/Online_books/Pr/Practices_25.html Religiousbook.net article on Hatha Yoga]

==References==

Large portions of this text was originally taken from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga Yoga]''. Retrieved Sept. 22, 2004.

User:Phos

2004-10-01T03:45:18Z

Phos:

I am Frater Κ.Φ., Secretary of [http://www.marin-oto.org Mons Abiegnus Oasis O.T.O.] in Northern California, a Freemason, occultist, and eternal student of the Mysteries.

[mailto:suti@pair.com contact]
[http://www.livejournal.com/users/ph0s lj]

Hinduism

2004-10-01T03:06:52Z

Phos: /* See also */

'''Hinduism''' ('''सनातन धर्म'''; ''Sanātana Dharma'', roughly Perennial Faith) is generally considered to be the oldest major world religion still practised today and first among [[Dharma]] faiths. Hinduism is characterized by a diverse array of belief systems, practices and scriptures. It has its origin in ancient [[Vedic]] culture at least as far back as 2000 CE. It is the third largest religion with approximately 1.05 billion followers worldwide, 96% of whom live in the Indian subcontinent.

Perhaps the Hindu spirit, inspired by no one man or woman in particular, is best captured in a line from the ancient [[Veda|Rig Veda]], the "oldest religious scripture in the world." ([[#References|1]]):

:[[Sanskrit]]: '''एकम् सत् विप्रा: बहुधा वदन्ति'''
:Transliteration: ''Ekam Sat Viprāha Bahudhā Vadanti''
:English: "Truth is One, though the Sages know it as Many."
::— ''The Rig Veda (Book I, Hymn CLXIV, Verse 46)''

Essentially, any kind of spiritual practice followed with faith, love and persistence will lead to the same ultimate state of self-realization. Thus, Hindu thought distinguishes itself by strongly encouraging tolerance for different beliefs since temporal systems cannot claim sole understanding of the one [[transcendental]] Truth.

To the Hindu, this idea has been an active force in defining the 'Eternal Dharma.' It has been for Hinduism what the infinite Divine Self of [[Advaita]] is to existence, remaining forever unchanged and self-luminous, central and pervasive, in spite of all the chaos and flux around it.

== Hinduism: a brief overview ==

Hinduism rests on the spiritual bedrock of the [[Vedas]], hence Veda [[Dharma]], and their mystic issue, the [[Upanishads]], as well as the teachings of many great Hindu [[guru]]s through the ages. Many streams of thought flow from the six Vedic/Hindu [[Hindu philosophy|schools]], [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]] sects and [[Tantra]] Agamic schools into the one ocean of Hinduism, the first of the Dharma religions. See [[Schools of Hinduism]].

===The Eternal Way===
"The Eternal Way" (in [[Sanskrit]] सनातन धर्म, ''Sanātana Dharma''), or the "Perennial Philosophy/Harmony/Faith", is the one name that has represented Hinduism for many thousands of years. According to Hindus, it speaks to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure [[science]] of [[consciousness]]. But this consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a supramental soul-state that exists within ''and'' beyond our existence, the unsullied Self of all. Religion to the Hindu is the native search for the divine within the Self, the search to find the One truth that in actuality never was lost. Truth sought with faith shall yield itself in blissful luminescence no matter the race or creed professed. Indeed, all existence, from vegetation and beasts to mankind, are subjects and objects of the eternal Dharma. This inherent faith, therefore, is also known as Arya/Noble Dharma, Veda/Knowledge Dharma, Yoga/Union Dharma, Hindu Dharma or, simply, the [[Dharma]].

What can be said to be common to all Hindus is belief in [[Dharma]], [[reincarnation]], [[karma]], and [[moksha]] (liberation) of every soul through a variety of moral, action-based, and meditative [[yoga]]s. Still more fundamental principles include [[ahimsa]] (non-violence), the primacy of the [[Guru]], the Divine Word of [[Aum]] and the power of [[mantra]]s, love of Truth in many manifestations as Gods and Goddessess, and an understanding that the essential spark of the Divine ([[Atman]]/[[Brahman]]) is in every human and living being, thus allowing for many spiritual paths leading to the One Unitary Truth.

An example of the pervasiveness of this paramount truth-seeking spirituality in daily life is the ''bindi'' (seen left), which is a common marker for Hindu women. It symbolizes the need to cultivate supramental consciousness, which is achieved by opening the mystic "third eye." Hindus across the board stress meditative insight, an intuition beyond the mind and body, a trait that is often associated with the ascetic god [[Shiva]]. Men, too, will bear on their foreheads the equivalent ''tilak'' mark, usually on religious occasions, its shape often representing particular devotion to a certain main deity: a 'U' shape stands for [[Vishnu]], a group of three lines for [[Shiva]]. It is not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying ''Hari-Hara'' (Vishnu-Shiva indissoluble).

===Yoga Dharma===
Hinduism is practiced through a variety of [[Yoga]]s (spiritual practices), primarily [[bhakti yoga|bhakti]] (loving devotion), [[Karma Yoga]] (selfless service), [[Raja Yoga]] (meditational Yoga) and [[Jnana Yoga]] (Yoga of discrimination). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu [[Yoga]]: The [[Bhagavad Gita]] and the [[Yoga Sutras]]. The [[Upanishad]]s are also very important as a philosophical foundation for this rational spiritualism.

===The four goals of life===
Another major aspect of Hindu dharma that is common to practically all Hindus is that of ''purushartha'', the "four goals of life". They are ''kama'', ''artha'', ''[[dharma]]'' and ''[[moksha]]''. It is said that all humans seek ''kama'' (pleasure, physical or emotional) and ''artha'' (power, fame and wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within a higher, pragmatic framework of ''dharma'', or moral harmony in all. Of course, the only goal that is truly infinite, whose attainment results in absolute happiness, is ''[[moksha]]'', or liberation, (a.k.a. ''[[Mukti]]'', ''[[Samadhi]]'', [[Nirvana]], etc.) from ''[[Samsara]]'', the cycle of life, death, and existential duality.

===The four stages of life===
The human life is also seen as four ''Ashramas'' ("phases" or "stages"). They are [[Brahmacharya]], [[Grihastha|Grihasthya]], [[Vanaprastha]] and [[Sanyasa]]. The first quarter of one's life, ''brahmacharya'' (literally "grazing in Brahma") is spent in celibate, sober and pure contemplation of life's secrets under a [[Guru]], building up body and mind for the responsibilities of life. Grihastya is the householder's stage, alternatively known as samsara, in which one marries and satisfies kama and artha within a married life and professional career. Vanaprastha is gradual detachment from the material world, ostensibly giving over duties to one's sons and daughters, spending more time in contemplation of the truth, and making holy pilgrimages. Finally, in sanyasa, the individual goes off into seclusion, often envisioned as the forest, to find God through Yogic meditation and peacefully shed the body for the next life.

=== Views of God ===

Within [[Sanatana Dharma]], or Hinduism (as it is commonly called), a variety of lesser gods are seen as aspects of the one impersonal divine ground, [[Brahman]] (not Brahma). Brahman is the ultimate, both [[transcendent]] and immanent the absolute infinite existence, the sum total of all that ever is, was, or ever shall be. Brahman is not a God in the monotheistic since, as it is not imbued with any limiting characteristics, not even those of being and non-being, and this is reflected in the fact that in [[Sanskrit]], the word brahman is of neuter (as opposed to masculine or feminine) gender.

[[Vedanta]] is a branch of [[Hindu philosophy]] which gives this matter a greater focus. [[Yoga]] is the primary focus in many ways of a Hindu's religious activities, being somewhere between [[meditation]], [[prayer]] and healthful [[exercise]].

Some of Hinduism's adherents are [[monist]]s, seeing in multiple manifestations of the one God or source of being, which is often confused by non-Hindus as being [[polytheism]]. It is seen as one unity, with the lesser gods aspects of the one, like a single beam of light separated into colours by a prism, and seen by some as valid to worship. Some of the Hindu gods and goddesses include [[Devi]], [[Vishnu]], [[Ganesh]], and [[Siva]]. Many even believe they may be able to bring worshippers closer to [[Moksha]], end of the [[reincarnation|cycle of rebirth]].

Some sects of Hinduism believe in a monotheistic ideal of [[Vishnu]] (often as [[Krishna]]), [[Shiva]], or [[Devi]]; this view does not exclude other gods, as they are understood to be aspects of the chosen ideal (e.g. to many devotees of Krishna, Shiva is seen as having sprung from Krishna's creative force). Often, the monad Brahman is seen as the one source, with all other gods emanating therefrom. Thus, with all Hindus, there is a strong belief in all paths being true religions that lead to one God or source, whatever one chooses to call the ultimate truth.

== Origins, nomenclature and society ==

===Historical origins and aspects of society===
Relatively little is known about the origins of Hinduism, as it predates [[recorded history]]. It has been said to derive from beliefs of the [[Aryan]]s, ('noble' followers of the [[Vedas]]), [[Dravidian]]s, and [[Harappan]]s living in the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism subsequently birthed [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], which in turn affected the development of their mother religion. Varying ideas of the origin of the [[Veda]] and understandings of whether or not the Aryans were native or foreign to Indian soil can change estimates of Hinduism's age from 4000 to 6000 years. See [[Early Hinduism]] and [[Aryan Invasion Theory]].

Historically, the word ''Hindu'' predates the reference to Hinduism as a religion; the term is of Persian origin and first referred to people who lived on the other side (from a Persian point of view) of the [[Sindhu]] or [[Indus river]]. It was used as a signifier not only of ethnicity but of Vedic religion as far back as the 15th and 16th centuries by such figures as [[Guru Nanak]] (the founder of [[Sikhism]]). During the [[British Raj]], the term's use was made standard, and eventually, the religion of the Vedic Hindoos was given the appelation 'Hinduism.' In actuality, it was merely a new signifier for a culture that had been thriving for millennia before. See the [[Hindu (ethnicity)]] page for more discussion.

===Yoga===

The [[Yoga]] system is generally considered to have arisen from the [[Samkhya]] philosophy. The ''yoga'' referred to here, however, is specifically Raja Yoga (or meditational union). It is based on the sage [[Patanjali]]'s extremely influential text entitled the [[Yoga Sutra]], which is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy that came before. [[Upanishads]] and [[Bhagavad Gita]] are also indispensable literature in the study of Yoga.

The most significant difference from [[Samkhya]] is that the Yoga school not only incorporates the concept of [[Ishvara]] (a personal God) into its metaphysical worldview but also that it holds Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate. This is because Ishvara is the only aspect of [[purusha]] (the infinite Divine Ground) that has not become entangled with prakrti (the temporal creative forces). It also utilizes the [[Brahman]]/Atman terminology and concepts that are found in depth in the [[Upanishad]]s, adopting Vedantic [[monism|monist]] concepts. Realization of the goal of Yoga is known as [[moksha]] or [[samadhi]]. It, like the [[Upanishad]]s, seeks realization of the Atman as being nothing other than the infinite Brahman through ethical (mind), physical (body) and meditational (soul) practices of one-pointedness on the 'one supreme truth.' See [[Yoga]] for an in-depth look at its history.

===Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta===
The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school is perhaps one of the cornerstone movements of Hinduism and certainly was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative inquiry, renewal of faith, and cultural reform. Primarily associated with the [[Upanishad]]s and their commentary by [[Badarayana]], the [[Vedanta Sutra]]s, Vedanta thought split into three groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of [[Adi Sankara]]. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] thought, which focused on meditation, morality and centeredness on the one Self rather than on rituals and meaningless societal distinctions like [[caste]]. See [[Vedanta]] for greater depth.

====Pure Monism: Advaita Vedanta====
Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness. Its consolidator was [[Adi_Sankara|Sankara]] ([[788?]]-[[820?]]). Sankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the [[Upanishad]]s and his own [[guru]] [[Govinda Bhagavadpada]]. By analysis of experiential consciousness, he exposed the relative nature of the world and established the non-dual reality of Brahman in which [[Atman]] (the individual soul) and [[Brahman]] (the ultimate reality) are identified absolutely. It is not merely philosophy, but a conscious system of applied ethics and meditation, all geared towards attaining peace and understanding of truth. Adi Sankara denounced [[caste]] and meaningless [[ritual]] as foolish, and in his own charismatic manner, exhorted the true devotee to meditate on God's love and apprehend truth. See [[Advaita]] for more.

====Qualified Monism: Vishistadvaita Vedanta====
[[Ramanuja]] ([[1040]] - [[1137]]) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman Narayana as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate reality had three aspects: Isvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.

====Dualism: Dvaita Vedanta====
Like Ramanuja, [[Madhva]] ([[1199]] - [[1278]]) identified god with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta.

==Alternative cultures of worship==

===The Bhakti schools===
The [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]] (Devotional) school is takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming love of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to tap into the universal divinity through personal form, which explains the proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people. Seen as a form of [[Yoga]], or union, it seeks to dissolve the ego in God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a divisive factor in spiritual realization. Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even transcended, through the love of God. The [[Bhakti]] movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of faith and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India. They can rightly be said to have affected the greatest wave of change in Hindu prayer and ritual since ancient times.

The most popular means of expressing love for God in the Hindu tradition has been through ''puja'', or ritual devotion, frequently using the aid of a ''[[#Forms of worship: icons and mantras|murti]]'' (statue) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of [[mantra]]s. Devotional songs called [[bhajan]]s (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), [[kirtan]] (praise), and [[arti]] (a filtered down form of Vedic fire ritual) are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of puja. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic medium. It is said, however, that the ''bhakta'', through a growing connection with God, is eventually able to eschew all external form and is immersed entirely in the bliss of undifferentiated Love in Truth.

Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the world and gave India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing unnecessary ritual and artificial social boundaries. See [[bhakti yoga]] for more.

===Tantrism===
According to the most famous Western Tantrik scholar, Sir John Woodroffe (pseudonym Arthur Avalon): "The Indian Tantras, which are numerous, constitute the Scripture (Shastra) of the Kaliyuga, and as such are the voluminous source of present and practical orthodox 'Hinduism'. The Tantra Shastra is, in fact, and whatever be its historical origin, a development of the Vaidika Karmakanda, promulgated to meet the needs of that age. Shiva says: 'For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given' (Chap. IX., verse 12). To the Tantra we must therefore look if we would understand aright both ritual, yoga, and sadhana of all kinds, as also the general principles of which these practices are but the objective expression." (Introduction to Sir John Woodroffe's translation of "Mahanirvana Tantra.")

The word "[[tantra]]" means "treatise" or "continuum", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as to those which we would now regard as "tantric". Most tantras were written in the late middle ages and sprang from Hindu cosmology and [[Yoga]]. See [[Tantra]] for more.

== Important symbolism and themes in Hinduism==

=== Ahimsa and the cow ===
A note of the element of ahimsa in Hinduism is vital to understanding the society that has arisen around some of its principles. While [[Jainism]] as it was practiced was certainly a major influence on Indian society, what with its exhortation of strict [[veganism]] and non-violence as ''ahimsa'', the term first appeared in the [[Upanishad]]s. Thus, an ingrained and externally motivated influence led to the development of a large section of Hindus who grew to embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life, restricting their diet to plants and vegetables. About 30% of today's [[Hindu]] population, especially in orthodox communities in [[South India]], in certain northerly states like Gujurat, and in many [[Brahmin]] enclaves around the subcontinent, is vegetarian. Thus, while vegetarianism is not dogma, it is recommended as a [[sattwa|sattwic]] (purifying) lifestyle.

Those [[Hindus]] who do eat meat predominantly abstain from [[beef]], some even going so far as to avoid leather products. This is most likely because the largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations of Hindus throughout the centuries relied so heavily on the cow for all sorts of dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertiliser that its status as a willing 'caretaker' of humanity grew to identifying it as an almost maternal figure. Thus, while most Hindus do not worship the cow, and scriptural injunctions against eating beef arose long after the [[Veda]]s had been written, it still holds an honored place in Hindu society. It is said that [[Krishna]] is both Govinda (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and [[Shiva]]'s attendant is [[Nandi]], the bull. With the stress on vegetarianism (which is usually followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days or special occasions) and the sacred nature of the cow, it is no wonder that most holy cities and areas in India have a ban on selling meat-products and there is a movement among Hindus to ban cow-slaughter not only in specific regions, but in all of [[India]].

=== Forms of worship: murtis and mantras ===
Contrary to popular belief, practiced Hinduism is neither [[polytheism|polytheistic]] nor strictly [[monotheism|monotheistic]]. The various gods and avatars that are worshipped by Hindus are understood as different forms of One truth, sometimes seen as beyond a mere God and as a formless Divine Ground ([[Brahman]]), akin but not limited to [[monism]], or as one monotheistic principle like [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]].

Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people. Hinduism encourages devotees to describe and develop a personal relationship with their chosen deity (ishta devata) in the form of a God or Goddess.

While some censuses hold worshippers of one form or another of [[Vishnu]] (known as ''[[Vaishnav]]s'') to be at 80% and those of [[Shiva]] (called ''[[Shaivaites]]'') and [[Devi|Shakti]] at the remaining 20%, such figures are perhaps misleading. The vast majority of Hindus worship many gods as varicolored forms of the same prism of Truth. Among the most popular are [[Vishnu]] (as [[Krishna]] or [[Rama]]), [[Shiva]], [[Devi]] (the Mother as many female deities, such as [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Kali]] and [[Durga]]), [[Ganesha]], [[Skanda]] and [[Hanuman]].

Worship of the said deities is often done through the aid of pictures or icons (''murti'') which are said not to be God themselves but conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human soul that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the love and grandeur of [[God]]. They are symbols of the greater principle, representing and are never presumed to ''be'' the concept or entity itself. Thus, Hindu image worship is a form of [[icon|iconolatry]], in which the symbols are venerated as putative sigils of divinity, as opposed to [[idolatry]], a charge often levied (erroneously) at Hindus. For more details on this form of worship, see [[murti]].

===Mantra===
Reciting [[mantra]]s is a fundamental practice that both originated and now continues in Hinduism. Much of mantra yoga, as it is called, is done through japa (repetition). Mantras are said, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the [[sadhaka]] (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of [[Bhakti yoga]] akin to the understanding of the [[murti]]. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed, [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s dying words were a two-word [[mantra]] to the Lord [[Rama]]: ''"Hai Ram!"'' (pronounced ''Hey Ram'').

The most representative of all the Hindu mantras is the famed [[Gayatri Mantra]]:

:ॐ भूर्भुवस्व: | तत् सवितूर्वरेण्यम् | भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि | धियो यो न: प्रचोदयात्
:'' Aum bhūrbhuvasvaH'' | ''tat savitūrvareṇyam'' | ''bhargo devasya dhīmahi'' | ''dhiyo yo naH pracodayāt''

(/H/ stands for the voiceless aspirate called 'visarga'.)

A good explanation of this mantra can be found here:
[http://www.indiaoz.com.au/hinduism/prayer/gayatri_mantra.shtml]. It is considered one of the most universal of all Hindu mantras, and invokes the universal [[Brahman]] as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun, only in its feminine aspect. Many Hindus till today, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for at least 5,000 years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the [[Ganga]]/[[Ganges]]). Known as a universal mantra, it is revered as being the most condensed form of Divine Knowledge (Veda). Its presiding principle, Ma (Mother) Gayatri, is also known as [[Veda Mata]] (Mother of the Vedas) and is strongly associated with the Goddess of Learning and Illumination, [[Saraswati]].

The chief aim of the Vedic religion is to achieve [[moksha]], or liberation, through constant dedication to ''Satya'' (Truth) and eventual realization of the ''[[Atman]]'' (Universal Soul). Whether this is achieved through meditation or pure love, this universal goal is achievable by all. But it should be noted that Hinduism is a very practical faith, and is embodied in every aspect of life. It believes equally in the temporal as in the infinite, only it encourages perspective. The great [[rishi]]s (Hindu sages) have termed the samsaric (one who lives in samsara, i.e. the temporal or earthly plane) who succeeds in living an honest, loving and [[dharma|dharmic]] life a [[jivanmukta]] (living free soul). Hinduism's fundamental truth is best expressed in the [[Upanishad|Upanishadic]] dictum, ''Tat Twam Asi'' (Thou Art That), and the ultimate aspiration as follows:

:''Aum Asato ma sad gamaya, tamaso ma jyotir gamaya, mrityor ma aamritaam gamaya''
:"Aum Lead me from ignorance to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality."

For more details, see [[Mantra]].

== Hindu scriptures ==

Hindu [[scripture]] is overwhelmingly written in [[Sanskrit]]. Indeed, much of the [[morphology]] and [[linguistic]] philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is inextricably linked to study of the [[Veda]]s and relevant Hindu texts. Hindu texts are typically seen to revolve around many levels of reading, namely gross/physical, subtle and supramental. This allows for many levels of understanding as well, implying that the truth of the texts can only be realized with the spiritual advancement of the reader. It is divided into two categories: ''[[Shruti]]''- that which is heard (i.e. revelation) and ''[[Smriti]]''- that which is remembered (i.e. tradition, not revelation).

For a more thorough look at the important texts of Hinduism, see [[Hindu scripture]].

===Shruti===
The [[Veda]]s are considered scripture by all Hindus. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the [[Veda]]s, the reverence for the more abstract notion of eternal knowledge (''Veda'' means knowledge) is etched deep into the hearts of all those who follow Veda Dharma. Classed with the [[Veda]]s (which specifically refer to the [[Rig Veda|Rig/Rg]], [[Yajur Veda|Yajur]], [[Sama Veda|Sama]] and [[Atharva Veda]]s) are their famous commentaries, the [[Upanishad]]s. While the early Vedas lay the foundation for subsequent Hindu ritual, cosmology and developing philosophy, the [[Upanishads]] built the edifice of mystic insight and abhorrence for ritual at the expense of spiritual insight. Forming the core of the [[Vedanta]] (''End of Vedas''), they streamline the excessive litany of praise to [[Vedic]] gods and capture the essence of the Rig Vedic dictum "Truth Is One." They set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of a single transcendent and yet immanent force that is native to each man's soul, an identification of micro- and macrocosm as One. It can be said that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four [[Veda]]s, Classical Hinduism, from the [[Yoga]] and [[Vedanta]] to [[Tantra]] and [[Bhakti]] streams, was molded around the [[Upanishads]].

===Bhagavad Gita===
The [[Bhagavad Gita]] occupies a special position in the hearts of most Hindus as a keystone ''yoga upanishad'' whose eternal words perhaps are the most representative of all Hindu thought, each shloka 'directly' from the mouth of the Lord [[Krishna]]. While technically it is considered Smriti, it has singularly achieved nearly unquestioned status as Shruti, or revealed, and is thus the most definitive single Hindu text, read by millions of ''bhaktas'' (devotees) and ''yogis'' on a largely daily basis throughout the ''Sanatana Dharmic'' world. See [[Bhagavad Gita]] to explore this text.

===Smriti===
The post-Vedic Hindu scriptures form the latter category, the most notable of which are the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]'', major [[epic]]s considered scripture by most followers of Sanatana Dharma, their stories arguably familiar to the vast majoriy of Hindus living in the [[Indian subcontinent]], if not abroad. Other texts considered important by today's Hindus include the [[Devi Mahatmya]], an ode to [[Devi]], the Divine Mother, and the [[Yoga Sutras]], a key meditative yoga text of Shri [[Patanjali]]. There are also a number of revered Hindu [[Tantras]] and [[List of sutras|Sutras]] that command the respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the [[Mahanirvana Tantra]], [[Tirumantiram]] and [[Shiva Sutras]].

== References==
# [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=402241 Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia]
# [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online]

==External links==

* [http://www.arshavidya.org/ Arsha Vidya Gurukulam]
* [http://www.atributetohinduism.com/ ''A Tribute To Hinduism'']
* [http://www.afghanhindu.info/ www.afghanhindu.info]
* [http://www.caribbeanhindu.com/ www.caribbeanhindu.com]
* [http://www.encyclopediaofauthentichinduism.org/ ''Authentic Hinduism'' Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.chinfo.org/ Chinmaya International Foundation - ''The Maternal Ancestral Home of Shri AdhiSankaracharya and the Center for Advanced Sanskrit Research and Indology'']
* [http://www.chinmayamission.org/ Chinmaya Mission]
* [http://www.archaeolink.com/hindu_hinduism_general_resources.htm Collection of Scholarly and Academic links on Hinduism]
* [http://www.dharmacentral.com/ Dharma Central]
* [http://www.hindu.org/ Hindu.org]
* [http://www.hindubooks.org/ Hindubooks.org]
* [http://www.hindu-indonesia.com/ Hinduism in Indonesia]
* [http://www.hindukids.org/ Hindukids.org]
* [http://www.hindunet.org/ Hindunet.org]
* [http://www.hscnet.org/ Hindu Students Council (primarily in the Americas, but with international chapters)]
* [http://www.himalayanacademy.com/ himalayanacademy.com]
* [http://www.indology.net/ Indology.Net]
* [http://www.mandala.org/ Mandala Publishing: Award-winning Publisher of Hindu and Indian Spirituality-related books]
* [http://www.panchamukha.org/ Panchmukha.org (Five Faces)]
* [http://www.prapatti.com/ Prapatti: Vaishnava site with downloadable shlokas]
* [http://sanskrit.gde.to/ Sanskrit site with comprehensive library of texts]
* [http://www.saranam.com/ Saranam]
* [http://satsang.tripod.com/ Satsang: Hindu Bhajan - Text and Audio]
* [http://satsangh.tripod.com/ Satsangh: Hindu Puja - Text and Audio]
* [http://www.shivashakti.com/ ShivaShakti.com: Comprehensive Hindu Tantra site]
* [http://thetruehistoryandthereligionofindia.org/ ''True History & Religion of India'']
* [http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/ VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online]
* [http://www.vedah.com/org/index.asp Shri Aurobindo Kapali Sastri Institute of Vedic Culture]
* [http://www.vedanet.com/ Vedanet.com: American Institute of Vedic Studies]
* [http://www.vedanta.org/ Vedanta.org]
* [http://www.archive.org/movies/movieslisting-browse.php?collection=opensource_movies&cat=bharatanatyam Video of Hindu dance-worship in Bharatanatyam]

==References==

This text was edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism Hinduism]''. Retrieved Sept. 30, 2004.

Hinduism

2004-10-01T03:06:35Z

Phos: /* Hindu terminology */

'''Hinduism''' ('''सनातन धर्म'''; ''Sanātana Dharma'', roughly Perennial Faith) is generally considered to be the oldest major world religion still practised today and first among [[Dharma]] faiths. Hinduism is characterized by a diverse array of belief systems, practices and scriptures. It has its origin in ancient [[Vedic]] culture at least as far back as 2000 CE. It is the third largest religion with approximately 1.05 billion followers worldwide, 96% of whom live in the Indian subcontinent.

Perhaps the Hindu spirit, inspired by no one man or woman in particular, is best captured in a line from the ancient [[Veda|Rig Veda]], the "oldest religious scripture in the world." ([[#References|1]]):

:[[Sanskrit]]: '''एकम् सत् विप्रा: बहुधा वदन्ति'''
:Transliteration: ''Ekam Sat Viprāha Bahudhā Vadanti''
:English: "Truth is One, though the Sages know it as Many."
::— ''The Rig Veda (Book I, Hymn CLXIV, Verse 46)''

Essentially, any kind of spiritual practice followed with faith, love and persistence will lead to the same ultimate state of self-realization. Thus, Hindu thought distinguishes itself by strongly encouraging tolerance for different beliefs since temporal systems cannot claim sole understanding of the one [[transcendental]] Truth.

To the Hindu, this idea has been an active force in defining the 'Eternal Dharma.' It has been for Hinduism what the infinite Divine Self of [[Advaita]] is to existence, remaining forever unchanged and self-luminous, central and pervasive, in spite of all the chaos and flux around it.

== Hinduism: a brief overview ==

Hinduism rests on the spiritual bedrock of the [[Vedas]], hence Veda [[Dharma]], and their mystic issue, the [[Upanishads]], as well as the teachings of many great Hindu [[guru]]s through the ages. Many streams of thought flow from the six Vedic/Hindu [[Hindu philosophy|schools]], [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]] sects and [[Tantra]] Agamic schools into the one ocean of Hinduism, the first of the Dharma religions. See [[Schools of Hinduism]].

===The Eternal Way===
"The Eternal Way" (in [[Sanskrit]] सनातन धर्म, ''Sanātana Dharma''), or the "Perennial Philosophy/Harmony/Faith", is the one name that has represented Hinduism for many thousands of years. According to Hindus, it speaks to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure [[science]] of [[consciousness]]. But this consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a supramental soul-state that exists within ''and'' beyond our existence, the unsullied Self of all. Religion to the Hindu is the native search for the divine within the Self, the search to find the One truth that in actuality never was lost. Truth sought with faith shall yield itself in blissful luminescence no matter the race or creed professed. Indeed, all existence, from vegetation and beasts to mankind, are subjects and objects of the eternal Dharma. This inherent faith, therefore, is also known as Arya/Noble Dharma, Veda/Knowledge Dharma, Yoga/Union Dharma, Hindu Dharma or, simply, the [[Dharma]].

What can be said to be common to all Hindus is belief in [[Dharma]], [[reincarnation]], [[karma]], and [[moksha]] (liberation) of every soul through a variety of moral, action-based, and meditative [[yoga]]s. Still more fundamental principles include [[ahimsa]] (non-violence), the primacy of the [[Guru]], the Divine Word of [[Aum]] and the power of [[mantra]]s, love of Truth in many manifestations as Gods and Goddessess, and an understanding that the essential spark of the Divine ([[Atman]]/[[Brahman]]) is in every human and living being, thus allowing for many spiritual paths leading to the One Unitary Truth.

An example of the pervasiveness of this paramount truth-seeking spirituality in daily life is the ''bindi'' (seen left), which is a common marker for Hindu women. It symbolizes the need to cultivate supramental consciousness, which is achieved by opening the mystic "third eye." Hindus across the board stress meditative insight, an intuition beyond the mind and body, a trait that is often associated with the ascetic god [[Shiva]]. Men, too, will bear on their foreheads the equivalent ''tilak'' mark, usually on religious occasions, its shape often representing particular devotion to a certain main deity: a 'U' shape stands for [[Vishnu]], a group of three lines for [[Shiva]]. It is not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying ''Hari-Hara'' (Vishnu-Shiva indissoluble).

===Yoga Dharma===
Hinduism is practiced through a variety of [[Yoga]]s (spiritual practices), primarily [[bhakti yoga|bhakti]] (loving devotion), [[Karma Yoga]] (selfless service), [[Raja Yoga]] (meditational Yoga) and [[Jnana Yoga]] (Yoga of discrimination). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu [[Yoga]]: The [[Bhagavad Gita]] and the [[Yoga Sutras]]. The [[Upanishad]]s are also very important as a philosophical foundation for this rational spiritualism.

===The four goals of life===
Another major aspect of Hindu dharma that is common to practically all Hindus is that of ''purushartha'', the "four goals of life". They are ''kama'', ''artha'', ''[[dharma]]'' and ''[[moksha]]''. It is said that all humans seek ''kama'' (pleasure, physical or emotional) and ''artha'' (power, fame and wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within a higher, pragmatic framework of ''dharma'', or moral harmony in all. Of course, the only goal that is truly infinite, whose attainment results in absolute happiness, is ''[[moksha]]'', or liberation, (a.k.a. ''[[Mukti]]'', ''[[Samadhi]]'', [[Nirvana]], etc.) from ''[[Samsara]]'', the cycle of life, death, and existential duality.

===The four stages of life===
The human life is also seen as four ''Ashramas'' ("phases" or "stages"). They are [[Brahmacharya]], [[Grihastha|Grihasthya]], [[Vanaprastha]] and [[Sanyasa]]. The first quarter of one's life, ''brahmacharya'' (literally "grazing in Brahma") is spent in celibate, sober and pure contemplation of life's secrets under a [[Guru]], building up body and mind for the responsibilities of life. Grihastya is the householder's stage, alternatively known as samsara, in which one marries and satisfies kama and artha within a married life and professional career. Vanaprastha is gradual detachment from the material world, ostensibly giving over duties to one's sons and daughters, spending more time in contemplation of the truth, and making holy pilgrimages. Finally, in sanyasa, the individual goes off into seclusion, often envisioned as the forest, to find God through Yogic meditation and peacefully shed the body for the next life.

=== Views of God ===

Within [[Sanatana Dharma]], or Hinduism (as it is commonly called), a variety of lesser gods are seen as aspects of the one impersonal divine ground, [[Brahman]] (not Brahma). Brahman is the ultimate, both [[transcendent]] and immanent the absolute infinite existence, the sum total of all that ever is, was, or ever shall be. Brahman is not a God in the monotheistic since, as it is not imbued with any limiting characteristics, not even those of being and non-being, and this is reflected in the fact that in [[Sanskrit]], the word brahman is of neuter (as opposed to masculine or feminine) gender.

[[Vedanta]] is a branch of [[Hindu philosophy]] which gives this matter a greater focus. [[Yoga]] is the primary focus in many ways of a Hindu's religious activities, being somewhere between [[meditation]], [[prayer]] and healthful [[exercise]].

Some of Hinduism's adherents are [[monist]]s, seeing in multiple manifestations of the one God or source of being, which is often confused by non-Hindus as being [[polytheism]]. It is seen as one unity, with the lesser gods aspects of the one, like a single beam of light separated into colours by a prism, and seen by some as valid to worship. Some of the Hindu gods and goddesses include [[Devi]], [[Vishnu]], [[Ganesh]], and [[Siva]]. Many even believe they may be able to bring worshippers closer to [[Moksha]], end of the [[reincarnation|cycle of rebirth]].

Some sects of Hinduism believe in a monotheistic ideal of [[Vishnu]] (often as [[Krishna]]), [[Shiva]], or [[Devi]]; this view does not exclude other gods, as they are understood to be aspects of the chosen ideal (e.g. to many devotees of Krishna, Shiva is seen as having sprung from Krishna's creative force). Often, the monad Brahman is seen as the one source, with all other gods emanating therefrom. Thus, with all Hindus, there is a strong belief in all paths being true religions that lead to one God or source, whatever one chooses to call the ultimate truth.

== Origins, nomenclature and society ==

===Historical origins and aspects of society===
Relatively little is known about the origins of Hinduism, as it predates [[recorded history]]. It has been said to derive from beliefs of the [[Aryan]]s, ('noble' followers of the [[Vedas]]), [[Dravidian]]s, and [[Harappan]]s living in the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism subsequently birthed [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], which in turn affected the development of their mother religion. Varying ideas of the origin of the [[Veda]] and understandings of whether or not the Aryans were native or foreign to Indian soil can change estimates of Hinduism's age from 4000 to 6000 years. See [[Early Hinduism]] and [[Aryan Invasion Theory]].

Historically, the word ''Hindu'' predates the reference to Hinduism as a religion; the term is of Persian origin and first referred to people who lived on the other side (from a Persian point of view) of the [[Sindhu]] or [[Indus river]]. It was used as a signifier not only of ethnicity but of Vedic religion as far back as the 15th and 16th centuries by such figures as [[Guru Nanak]] (the founder of [[Sikhism]]). During the [[British Raj]], the term's use was made standard, and eventually, the religion of the Vedic Hindoos was given the appelation 'Hinduism.' In actuality, it was merely a new signifier for a culture that had been thriving for millennia before. See the [[Hindu (ethnicity)]] page for more discussion.

===Yoga===

The [[Yoga]] system is generally considered to have arisen from the [[Samkhya]] philosophy. The ''yoga'' referred to here, however, is specifically Raja Yoga (or meditational union). It is based on the sage [[Patanjali]]'s extremely influential text entitled the [[Yoga Sutra]], which is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy that came before. [[Upanishads]] and [[Bhagavad Gita]] are also indispensable literature in the study of Yoga.

The most significant difference from [[Samkhya]] is that the Yoga school not only incorporates the concept of [[Ishvara]] (a personal God) into its metaphysical worldview but also that it holds Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate. This is because Ishvara is the only aspect of [[purusha]] (the infinite Divine Ground) that has not become entangled with prakrti (the temporal creative forces). It also utilizes the [[Brahman]]/Atman terminology and concepts that are found in depth in the [[Upanishad]]s, adopting Vedantic [[monism|monist]] concepts. Realization of the goal of Yoga is known as [[moksha]] or [[samadhi]]. It, like the [[Upanishad]]s, seeks realization of the Atman as being nothing other than the infinite Brahman through ethical (mind), physical (body) and meditational (soul) practices of one-pointedness on the 'one supreme truth.' See [[Yoga]] for an in-depth look at its history.

===Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta===
The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school is perhaps one of the cornerstone movements of Hinduism and certainly was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative inquiry, renewal of faith, and cultural reform. Primarily associated with the [[Upanishad]]s and their commentary by [[Badarayana]], the [[Vedanta Sutra]]s, Vedanta thought split into three groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of [[Adi Sankara]]. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] thought, which focused on meditation, morality and centeredness on the one Self rather than on rituals and meaningless societal distinctions like [[caste]]. See [[Vedanta]] for greater depth.

====Pure Monism: Advaita Vedanta====
Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness. Its consolidator was [[Adi_Sankara|Sankara]] ([[788?]]-[[820?]]). Sankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the [[Upanishad]]s and his own [[guru]] [[Govinda Bhagavadpada]]. By analysis of experiential consciousness, he exposed the relative nature of the world and established the non-dual reality of Brahman in which [[Atman]] (the individual soul) and [[Brahman]] (the ultimate reality) are identified absolutely. It is not merely philosophy, but a conscious system of applied ethics and meditation, all geared towards attaining peace and understanding of truth. Adi Sankara denounced [[caste]] and meaningless [[ritual]] as foolish, and in his own charismatic manner, exhorted the true devotee to meditate on God's love and apprehend truth. See [[Advaita]] for more.

====Qualified Monism: Vishistadvaita Vedanta====
[[Ramanuja]] ([[1040]] - [[1137]]) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman Narayana as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate reality had three aspects: Isvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.

====Dualism: Dvaita Vedanta====
Like Ramanuja, [[Madhva]] ([[1199]] - [[1278]]) identified god with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta.

==Alternative cultures of worship==

===The Bhakti schools===
The [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]] (Devotional) school is takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming love of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to tap into the universal divinity through personal form, which explains the proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people. Seen as a form of [[Yoga]], or union, it seeks to dissolve the ego in God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a divisive factor in spiritual realization. Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even transcended, through the love of God. The [[Bhakti]] movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of faith and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India. They can rightly be said to have affected the greatest wave of change in Hindu prayer and ritual since ancient times.

The most popular means of expressing love for God in the Hindu tradition has been through ''puja'', or ritual devotion, frequently using the aid of a ''[[#Forms of worship: icons and mantras|murti]]'' (statue) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of [[mantra]]s. Devotional songs called [[bhajan]]s (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), [[kirtan]] (praise), and [[arti]] (a filtered down form of Vedic fire ritual) are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of puja. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic medium. It is said, however, that the ''bhakta'', through a growing connection with God, is eventually able to eschew all external form and is immersed entirely in the bliss of undifferentiated Love in Truth.

Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the world and gave India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing unnecessary ritual and artificial social boundaries. See [[bhakti yoga]] for more.

===Tantrism===
According to the most famous Western Tantrik scholar, Sir John Woodroffe (pseudonym Arthur Avalon): "The Indian Tantras, which are numerous, constitute the Scripture (Shastra) of the Kaliyuga, and as such are the voluminous source of present and practical orthodox 'Hinduism'. The Tantra Shastra is, in fact, and whatever be its historical origin, a development of the Vaidika Karmakanda, promulgated to meet the needs of that age. Shiva says: 'For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given' (Chap. IX., verse 12). To the Tantra we must therefore look if we would understand aright both ritual, yoga, and sadhana of all kinds, as also the general principles of which these practices are but the objective expression." (Introduction to Sir John Woodroffe's translation of "Mahanirvana Tantra.")

The word "[[tantra]]" means "treatise" or "continuum", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as to those which we would now regard as "tantric". Most tantras were written in the late middle ages and sprang from Hindu cosmology and [[Yoga]]. See [[Tantra]] for more.

== Important symbolism and themes in Hinduism==

=== Ahimsa and the cow ===
A note of the element of ahimsa in Hinduism is vital to understanding the society that has arisen around some of its principles. While [[Jainism]] as it was practiced was certainly a major influence on Indian society, what with its exhortation of strict [[veganism]] and non-violence as ''ahimsa'', the term first appeared in the [[Upanishad]]s. Thus, an ingrained and externally motivated influence led to the development of a large section of Hindus who grew to embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life, restricting their diet to plants and vegetables. About 30% of today's [[Hindu]] population, especially in orthodox communities in [[South India]], in certain northerly states like Gujurat, and in many [[Brahmin]] enclaves around the subcontinent, is vegetarian. Thus, while vegetarianism is not dogma, it is recommended as a [[sattwa|sattwic]] (purifying) lifestyle.

Those [[Hindus]] who do eat meat predominantly abstain from [[beef]], some even going so far as to avoid leather products. This is most likely because the largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations of Hindus throughout the centuries relied so heavily on the cow for all sorts of dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertiliser that its status as a willing 'caretaker' of humanity grew to identifying it as an almost maternal figure. Thus, while most Hindus do not worship the cow, and scriptural injunctions against eating beef arose long after the [[Veda]]s had been written, it still holds an honored place in Hindu society. It is said that [[Krishna]] is both Govinda (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and [[Shiva]]'s attendant is [[Nandi]], the bull. With the stress on vegetarianism (which is usually followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days or special occasions) and the sacred nature of the cow, it is no wonder that most holy cities and areas in India have a ban on selling meat-products and there is a movement among Hindus to ban cow-slaughter not only in specific regions, but in all of [[India]].

=== Forms of worship: murtis and mantras ===
Contrary to popular belief, practiced Hinduism is neither [[polytheism|polytheistic]] nor strictly [[monotheism|monotheistic]]. The various gods and avatars that are worshipped by Hindus are understood as different forms of One truth, sometimes seen as beyond a mere God and as a formless Divine Ground ([[Brahman]]), akin but not limited to [[monism]], or as one monotheistic principle like [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]].

Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people. Hinduism encourages devotees to describe and develop a personal relationship with their chosen deity (ishta devata) in the form of a God or Goddess.

While some censuses hold worshippers of one form or another of [[Vishnu]] (known as ''[[Vaishnav]]s'') to be at 80% and those of [[Shiva]] (called ''[[Shaivaites]]'') and [[Devi|Shakti]] at the remaining 20%, such figures are perhaps misleading. The vast majority of Hindus worship many gods as varicolored forms of the same prism of Truth. Among the most popular are [[Vishnu]] (as [[Krishna]] or [[Rama]]), [[Shiva]], [[Devi]] (the Mother as many female deities, such as [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Kali]] and [[Durga]]), [[Ganesha]], [[Skanda]] and [[Hanuman]].

Worship of the said deities is often done through the aid of pictures or icons (''murti'') which are said not to be God themselves but conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human soul that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the love and grandeur of [[God]]. They are symbols of the greater principle, representing and are never presumed to ''be'' the concept or entity itself. Thus, Hindu image worship is a form of [[icon|iconolatry]], in which the symbols are venerated as putative sigils of divinity, as opposed to [[idolatry]], a charge often levied (erroneously) at Hindus. For more details on this form of worship, see [[murti]].

===Mantra===
Reciting [[mantra]]s is a fundamental practice that both originated and now continues in Hinduism. Much of mantra yoga, as it is called, is done through japa (repetition). Mantras are said, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the [[sadhaka]] (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of [[Bhakti yoga]] akin to the understanding of the [[murti]]. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed, [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s dying words were a two-word [[mantra]] to the Lord [[Rama]]: ''"Hai Ram!"'' (pronounced ''Hey Ram'').

The most representative of all the Hindu mantras is the famed [[Gayatri Mantra]]:

:ॐ भूर्भुवस्व: | तत् सवितूर्वरेण्यम् | भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि | धियो यो न: प्रचोदयात्
:'' Aum bhūrbhuvasvaH'' | ''tat savitūrvareṇyam'' | ''bhargo devasya dhīmahi'' | ''dhiyo yo naH pracodayāt''

(/H/ stands for the voiceless aspirate called 'visarga'.)

A good explanation of this mantra can be found here:
[http://www.indiaoz.com.au/hinduism/prayer/gayatri_mantra.shtml]. It is considered one of the most universal of all Hindu mantras, and invokes the universal [[Brahman]] as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun, only in its feminine aspect. Many Hindus till today, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for at least 5,000 years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the [[Ganga]]/[[Ganges]]). Known as a universal mantra, it is revered as being the most condensed form of Divine Knowledge (Veda). Its presiding principle, Ma (Mother) Gayatri, is also known as [[Veda Mata]] (Mother of the Vedas) and is strongly associated with the Goddess of Learning and Illumination, [[Saraswati]].

The chief aim of the Vedic religion is to achieve [[moksha]], or liberation, through constant dedication to ''Satya'' (Truth) and eventual realization of the ''[[Atman]]'' (Universal Soul). Whether this is achieved through meditation or pure love, this universal goal is achievable by all. But it should be noted that Hinduism is a very practical faith, and is embodied in every aspect of life. It believes equally in the temporal as in the infinite, only it encourages perspective. The great [[rishi]]s (Hindu sages) have termed the samsaric (one who lives in samsara, i.e. the temporal or earthly plane) who succeeds in living an honest, loving and [[dharma|dharmic]] life a [[jivanmukta]] (living free soul). Hinduism's fundamental truth is best expressed in the [[Upanishad|Upanishadic]] dictum, ''Tat Twam Asi'' (Thou Art That), and the ultimate aspiration as follows:

:''Aum Asato ma sad gamaya, tamaso ma jyotir gamaya, mrityor ma aamritaam gamaya''
:"Aum Lead me from ignorance to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality."

For more details, see [[Mantra]].

== Hindu scriptures ==

Hindu [[scripture]] is overwhelmingly written in [[Sanskrit]]. Indeed, much of the [[morphology]] and [[linguistic]] philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is inextricably linked to study of the [[Veda]]s and relevant Hindu texts. Hindu texts are typically seen to revolve around many levels of reading, namely gross/physical, subtle and supramental. This allows for many levels of understanding as well, implying that the truth of the texts can only be realized with the spiritual advancement of the reader. It is divided into two categories: ''[[Shruti]]''- that which is heard (i.e. revelation) and ''[[Smriti]]''- that which is remembered (i.e. tradition, not revelation).

For a more thorough look at the important texts of Hinduism, see [[Hindu scripture]].

===Shruti===
The [[Veda]]s are considered scripture by all Hindus. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the [[Veda]]s, the reverence for the more abstract notion of eternal knowledge (''Veda'' means knowledge) is etched deep into the hearts of all those who follow Veda Dharma. Classed with the [[Veda]]s (which specifically refer to the [[Rig Veda|Rig/Rg]], [[Yajur Veda|Yajur]], [[Sama Veda|Sama]] and [[Atharva Veda]]s) are their famous commentaries, the [[Upanishad]]s. While the early Vedas lay the foundation for subsequent Hindu ritual, cosmology and developing philosophy, the [[Upanishads]] built the edifice of mystic insight and abhorrence for ritual at the expense of spiritual insight. Forming the core of the [[Vedanta]] (''End of Vedas''), they streamline the excessive litany of praise to [[Vedic]] gods and capture the essence of the Rig Vedic dictum "Truth Is One." They set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of a single transcendent and yet immanent force that is native to each man's soul, an identification of micro- and macrocosm as One. It can be said that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four [[Veda]]s, Classical Hinduism, from the [[Yoga]] and [[Vedanta]] to [[Tantra]] and [[Bhakti]] streams, was molded around the [[Upanishads]].

===Bhagavad Gita===
The [[Bhagavad Gita]] occupies a special position in the hearts of most Hindus as a keystone ''yoga upanishad'' whose eternal words perhaps are the most representative of all Hindu thought, each shloka 'directly' from the mouth of the Lord [[Krishna]]. While technically it is considered Smriti, it has singularly achieved nearly unquestioned status as Shruti, or revealed, and is thus the most definitive single Hindu text, read by millions of ''bhaktas'' (devotees) and ''yogis'' on a largely daily basis throughout the ''Sanatana Dharmic'' world. See [[Bhagavad Gita]] to explore this text.

===Smriti===
The post-Vedic Hindu scriptures form the latter category, the most notable of which are the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]'', major [[epic]]s considered scripture by most followers of Sanatana Dharma, their stories arguably familiar to the vast majoriy of Hindus living in the [[Indian subcontinent]], if not abroad. Other texts considered important by today's Hindus include the [[Devi Mahatmya]], an ode to [[Devi]], the Divine Mother, and the [[Yoga Sutras]], a key meditative yoga text of Shri [[Patanjali]]. There are also a number of revered Hindu [[Tantras]] and [[List of sutras|Sutras]] that command the respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the [[Mahanirvana Tantra]], [[Tirumantiram]] and [[Shiva Sutras]].

== References==
# [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=402241 Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia]
# [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online]

== See also ==

==External links==

* [http://www.arshavidya.org/ Arsha Vidya Gurukulam]
* [http://www.atributetohinduism.com/ ''A Tribute To Hinduism'']
* [http://www.afghanhindu.info/ www.afghanhindu.info]
* [http://www.caribbeanhindu.com/ www.caribbeanhindu.com]
* [http://www.encyclopediaofauthentichinduism.org/ ''Authentic Hinduism'' Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.chinfo.org/ Chinmaya International Foundation - ''The Maternal Ancestral Home of Shri AdhiSankaracharya and the Center for Advanced Sanskrit Research and Indology'']
* [http://www.chinmayamission.org/ Chinmaya Mission]
* [http://www.archaeolink.com/hindu_hinduism_general_resources.htm Collection of Scholarly and Academic links on Hinduism]
* [http://www.dharmacentral.com/ Dharma Central]
* [http://www.hindu.org/ Hindu.org]
* [http://www.hindubooks.org/ Hindubooks.org]
* [http://www.hindu-indonesia.com/ Hinduism in Indonesia]
* [http://www.hindukids.org/ Hindukids.org]
* [http://www.hindunet.org/ Hindunet.org]
* [http://www.hscnet.org/ Hindu Students Council (primarily in the Americas, but with international chapters)]
* [http://www.himalayanacademy.com/ himalayanacademy.com]
* [http://www.indology.net/ Indology.Net]
* [http://www.mandala.org/ Mandala Publishing: Award-winning Publisher of Hindu and Indian Spirituality-related books]
* [http://www.panchamukha.org/ Panchmukha.org (Five Faces)]
* [http://www.prapatti.com/ Prapatti: Vaishnava site with downloadable shlokas]
* [http://sanskrit.gde.to/ Sanskrit site with comprehensive library of texts]
* [http://www.saranam.com/ Saranam]
* [http://satsang.tripod.com/ Satsang: Hindu Bhajan - Text and Audio]
* [http://satsangh.tripod.com/ Satsangh: Hindu Puja - Text and Audio]
* [http://www.shivashakti.com/ ShivaShakti.com: Comprehensive Hindu Tantra site]
* [http://thetruehistoryandthereligionofindia.org/ ''True History & Religion of India'']
* [http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/ VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online]
* [http://www.vedah.com/org/index.asp Shri Aurobindo Kapali Sastri Institute of Vedic Culture]
* [http://www.vedanet.com/ Vedanet.com: American Institute of Vedic Studies]
* [http://www.vedanta.org/ Vedanta.org]
* [http://www.archive.org/movies/movieslisting-browse.php?collection=opensource_movies&cat=bharatanatyam Video of Hindu dance-worship in Bharatanatyam]

==References==

This text was edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism Hinduism]''. Retrieved Sept. 30, 2004.

Hinduism

2004-10-01T03:06:16Z

Phos: /* Important Hindu Scripture */

'''Hinduism''' ('''सनातन धर्म'''; ''Sanātana Dharma'', roughly Perennial Faith) is generally considered to be the oldest major world religion still practised today and first among [[Dharma]] faiths. Hinduism is characterized by a diverse array of belief systems, practices and scriptures. It has its origin in ancient [[Vedic]] culture at least as far back as 2000 CE. It is the third largest religion with approximately 1.05 billion followers worldwide, 96% of whom live in the Indian subcontinent.

Perhaps the Hindu spirit, inspired by no one man or woman in particular, is best captured in a line from the ancient [[Veda|Rig Veda]], the "oldest religious scripture in the world." ([[#References|1]]):

:[[Sanskrit]]: '''एकम् सत् विप्रा: बहुधा वदन्ति'''
:Transliteration: ''Ekam Sat Viprāha Bahudhā Vadanti''
:English: "Truth is One, though the Sages know it as Many."
::— ''The Rig Veda (Book I, Hymn CLXIV, Verse 46)''

Essentially, any kind of spiritual practice followed with faith, love and persistence will lead to the same ultimate state of self-realization. Thus, Hindu thought distinguishes itself by strongly encouraging tolerance for different beliefs since temporal systems cannot claim sole understanding of the one [[transcendental]] Truth.

To the Hindu, this idea has been an active force in defining the 'Eternal Dharma.' It has been for Hinduism what the infinite Divine Self of [[Advaita]] is to existence, remaining forever unchanged and self-luminous, central and pervasive, in spite of all the chaos and flux around it.

== Hinduism: a brief overview ==

Hinduism rests on the spiritual bedrock of the [[Vedas]], hence Veda [[Dharma]], and their mystic issue, the [[Upanishads]], as well as the teachings of many great Hindu [[guru]]s through the ages. Many streams of thought flow from the six Vedic/Hindu [[Hindu philosophy|schools]], [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]] sects and [[Tantra]] Agamic schools into the one ocean of Hinduism, the first of the Dharma religions. See [[Schools of Hinduism]].

===The Eternal Way===
"The Eternal Way" (in [[Sanskrit]] सनातन धर्म, ''Sanātana Dharma''), or the "Perennial Philosophy/Harmony/Faith", is the one name that has represented Hinduism for many thousands of years. According to Hindus, it speaks to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure [[science]] of [[consciousness]]. But this consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a supramental soul-state that exists within ''and'' beyond our existence, the unsullied Self of all. Religion to the Hindu is the native search for the divine within the Self, the search to find the One truth that in actuality never was lost. Truth sought with faith shall yield itself in blissful luminescence no matter the race or creed professed. Indeed, all existence, from vegetation and beasts to mankind, are subjects and objects of the eternal Dharma. This inherent faith, therefore, is also known as Arya/Noble Dharma, Veda/Knowledge Dharma, Yoga/Union Dharma, Hindu Dharma or, simply, the [[Dharma]].

What can be said to be common to all Hindus is belief in [[Dharma]], [[reincarnation]], [[karma]], and [[moksha]] (liberation) of every soul through a variety of moral, action-based, and meditative [[yoga]]s. Still more fundamental principles include [[ahimsa]] (non-violence), the primacy of the [[Guru]], the Divine Word of [[Aum]] and the power of [[mantra]]s, love of Truth in many manifestations as Gods and Goddessess, and an understanding that the essential spark of the Divine ([[Atman]]/[[Brahman]]) is in every human and living being, thus allowing for many spiritual paths leading to the One Unitary Truth.

An example of the pervasiveness of this paramount truth-seeking spirituality in daily life is the ''bindi'' (seen left), which is a common marker for Hindu women. It symbolizes the need to cultivate supramental consciousness, which is achieved by opening the mystic "third eye." Hindus across the board stress meditative insight, an intuition beyond the mind and body, a trait that is often associated with the ascetic god [[Shiva]]. Men, too, will bear on their foreheads the equivalent ''tilak'' mark, usually on religious occasions, its shape often representing particular devotion to a certain main deity: a 'U' shape stands for [[Vishnu]], a group of three lines for [[Shiva]]. It is not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying ''Hari-Hara'' (Vishnu-Shiva indissoluble).

===Yoga Dharma===
Hinduism is practiced through a variety of [[Yoga]]s (spiritual practices), primarily [[bhakti yoga|bhakti]] (loving devotion), [[Karma Yoga]] (selfless service), [[Raja Yoga]] (meditational Yoga) and [[Jnana Yoga]] (Yoga of discrimination). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu [[Yoga]]: The [[Bhagavad Gita]] and the [[Yoga Sutras]]. The [[Upanishad]]s are also very important as a philosophical foundation for this rational spiritualism.

===The four goals of life===
Another major aspect of Hindu dharma that is common to practically all Hindus is that of ''purushartha'', the "four goals of life". They are ''kama'', ''artha'', ''[[dharma]]'' and ''[[moksha]]''. It is said that all humans seek ''kama'' (pleasure, physical or emotional) and ''artha'' (power, fame and wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within a higher, pragmatic framework of ''dharma'', or moral harmony in all. Of course, the only goal that is truly infinite, whose attainment results in absolute happiness, is ''[[moksha]]'', or liberation, (a.k.a. ''[[Mukti]]'', ''[[Samadhi]]'', [[Nirvana]], etc.) from ''[[Samsara]]'', the cycle of life, death, and existential duality.

===The four stages of life===
The human life is also seen as four ''Ashramas'' ("phases" or "stages"). They are [[Brahmacharya]], [[Grihastha|Grihasthya]], [[Vanaprastha]] and [[Sanyasa]]. The first quarter of one's life, ''brahmacharya'' (literally "grazing in Brahma") is spent in celibate, sober and pure contemplation of life's secrets under a [[Guru]], building up body and mind for the responsibilities of life. Grihastya is the householder's stage, alternatively known as samsara, in which one marries and satisfies kama and artha within a married life and professional career. Vanaprastha is gradual detachment from the material world, ostensibly giving over duties to one's sons and daughters, spending more time in contemplation of the truth, and making holy pilgrimages. Finally, in sanyasa, the individual goes off into seclusion, often envisioned as the forest, to find God through Yogic meditation and peacefully shed the body for the next life.

=== Views of God ===

Within [[Sanatana Dharma]], or Hinduism (as it is commonly called), a variety of lesser gods are seen as aspects of the one impersonal divine ground, [[Brahman]] (not Brahma). Brahman is the ultimate, both [[transcendent]] and immanent the absolute infinite existence, the sum total of all that ever is, was, or ever shall be. Brahman is not a God in the monotheistic since, as it is not imbued with any limiting characteristics, not even those of being and non-being, and this is reflected in the fact that in [[Sanskrit]], the word brahman is of neuter (as opposed to masculine or feminine) gender.

[[Vedanta]] is a branch of [[Hindu philosophy]] which gives this matter a greater focus. [[Yoga]] is the primary focus in many ways of a Hindu's religious activities, being somewhere between [[meditation]], [[prayer]] and healthful [[exercise]].

Some of Hinduism's adherents are [[monist]]s, seeing in multiple manifestations of the one God or source of being, which is often confused by non-Hindus as being [[polytheism]]. It is seen as one unity, with the lesser gods aspects of the one, like a single beam of light separated into colours by a prism, and seen by some as valid to worship. Some of the Hindu gods and goddesses include [[Devi]], [[Vishnu]], [[Ganesh]], and [[Siva]]. Many even believe they may be able to bring worshippers closer to [[Moksha]], end of the [[reincarnation|cycle of rebirth]].

Some sects of Hinduism believe in a monotheistic ideal of [[Vishnu]] (often as [[Krishna]]), [[Shiva]], or [[Devi]]; this view does not exclude other gods, as they are understood to be aspects of the chosen ideal (e.g. to many devotees of Krishna, Shiva is seen as having sprung from Krishna's creative force). Often, the monad Brahman is seen as the one source, with all other gods emanating therefrom. Thus, with all Hindus, there is a strong belief in all paths being true religions that lead to one God or source, whatever one chooses to call the ultimate truth.

== Origins, nomenclature and society ==

===Historical origins and aspects of society===
Relatively little is known about the origins of Hinduism, as it predates [[recorded history]]. It has been said to derive from beliefs of the [[Aryan]]s, ('noble' followers of the [[Vedas]]), [[Dravidian]]s, and [[Harappan]]s living in the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism subsequently birthed [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], which in turn affected the development of their mother religion. Varying ideas of the origin of the [[Veda]] and understandings of whether or not the Aryans were native or foreign to Indian soil can change estimates of Hinduism's age from 4000 to 6000 years. See [[Early Hinduism]] and [[Aryan Invasion Theory]].

Historically, the word ''Hindu'' predates the reference to Hinduism as a religion; the term is of Persian origin and first referred to people who lived on the other side (from a Persian point of view) of the [[Sindhu]] or [[Indus river]]. It was used as a signifier not only of ethnicity but of Vedic religion as far back as the 15th and 16th centuries by such figures as [[Guru Nanak]] (the founder of [[Sikhism]]). During the [[British Raj]], the term's use was made standard, and eventually, the religion of the Vedic Hindoos was given the appelation 'Hinduism.' In actuality, it was merely a new signifier for a culture that had been thriving for millennia before. See the [[Hindu (ethnicity)]] page for more discussion.

===Yoga===

The [[Yoga]] system is generally considered to have arisen from the [[Samkhya]] philosophy. The ''yoga'' referred to here, however, is specifically Raja Yoga (or meditational union). It is based on the sage [[Patanjali]]'s extremely influential text entitled the [[Yoga Sutra]], which is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy that came before. [[Upanishads]] and [[Bhagavad Gita]] are also indispensable literature in the study of Yoga.

The most significant difference from [[Samkhya]] is that the Yoga school not only incorporates the concept of [[Ishvara]] (a personal God) into its metaphysical worldview but also that it holds Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate. This is because Ishvara is the only aspect of [[purusha]] (the infinite Divine Ground) that has not become entangled with prakrti (the temporal creative forces). It also utilizes the [[Brahman]]/Atman terminology and concepts that are found in depth in the [[Upanishad]]s, adopting Vedantic [[monism|monist]] concepts. Realization of the goal of Yoga is known as [[moksha]] or [[samadhi]]. It, like the [[Upanishad]]s, seeks realization of the Atman as being nothing other than the infinite Brahman through ethical (mind), physical (body) and meditational (soul) practices of one-pointedness on the 'one supreme truth.' See [[Yoga]] for an in-depth look at its history.

===Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta===
The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school is perhaps one of the cornerstone movements of Hinduism and certainly was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative inquiry, renewal of faith, and cultural reform. Primarily associated with the [[Upanishad]]s and their commentary by [[Badarayana]], the [[Vedanta Sutra]]s, Vedanta thought split into three groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of [[Adi Sankara]]. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] thought, which focused on meditation, morality and centeredness on the one Self rather than on rituals and meaningless societal distinctions like [[caste]]. See [[Vedanta]] for greater depth.

====Pure Monism: Advaita Vedanta====
Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness. Its consolidator was [[Adi_Sankara|Sankara]] ([[788?]]-[[820?]]). Sankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the [[Upanishad]]s and his own [[guru]] [[Govinda Bhagavadpada]]. By analysis of experiential consciousness, he exposed the relative nature of the world and established the non-dual reality of Brahman in which [[Atman]] (the individual soul) and [[Brahman]] (the ultimate reality) are identified absolutely. It is not merely philosophy, but a conscious system of applied ethics and meditation, all geared towards attaining peace and understanding of truth. Adi Sankara denounced [[caste]] and meaningless [[ritual]] as foolish, and in his own charismatic manner, exhorted the true devotee to meditate on God's love and apprehend truth. See [[Advaita]] for more.

====Qualified Monism: Vishistadvaita Vedanta====
[[Ramanuja]] ([[1040]] - [[1137]]) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman Narayana as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate reality had three aspects: Isvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.

====Dualism: Dvaita Vedanta====
Like Ramanuja, [[Madhva]] ([[1199]] - [[1278]]) identified god with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta.

==Alternative cultures of worship==

===The Bhakti schools===
The [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]] (Devotional) school is takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming love of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to tap into the universal divinity through personal form, which explains the proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people. Seen as a form of [[Yoga]], or union, it seeks to dissolve the ego in God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a divisive factor in spiritual realization. Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even transcended, through the love of God. The [[Bhakti]] movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of faith and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India. They can rightly be said to have affected the greatest wave of change in Hindu prayer and ritual since ancient times.

The most popular means of expressing love for God in the Hindu tradition has been through ''puja'', or ritual devotion, frequently using the aid of a ''[[#Forms of worship: icons and mantras|murti]]'' (statue) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of [[mantra]]s. Devotional songs called [[bhajan]]s (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), [[kirtan]] (praise), and [[arti]] (a filtered down form of Vedic fire ritual) are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of puja. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic medium. It is said, however, that the ''bhakta'', through a growing connection with God, is eventually able to eschew all external form and is immersed entirely in the bliss of undifferentiated Love in Truth.

Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the world and gave India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing unnecessary ritual and artificial social boundaries. See [[bhakti yoga]] for more.

===Tantrism===
According to the most famous Western Tantrik scholar, Sir John Woodroffe (pseudonym Arthur Avalon): "The Indian Tantras, which are numerous, constitute the Scripture (Shastra) of the Kaliyuga, and as such are the voluminous source of present and practical orthodox 'Hinduism'. The Tantra Shastra is, in fact, and whatever be its historical origin, a development of the Vaidika Karmakanda, promulgated to meet the needs of that age. Shiva says: 'For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given' (Chap. IX., verse 12). To the Tantra we must therefore look if we would understand aright both ritual, yoga, and sadhana of all kinds, as also the general principles of which these practices are but the objective expression." (Introduction to Sir John Woodroffe's translation of "Mahanirvana Tantra.")

The word "[[tantra]]" means "treatise" or "continuum", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as to those which we would now regard as "tantric". Most tantras were written in the late middle ages and sprang from Hindu cosmology and [[Yoga]]. See [[Tantra]] for more.

== Important symbolism and themes in Hinduism==

=== Ahimsa and the cow ===
A note of the element of ahimsa in Hinduism is vital to understanding the society that has arisen around some of its principles. While [[Jainism]] as it was practiced was certainly a major influence on Indian society, what with its exhortation of strict [[veganism]] and non-violence as ''ahimsa'', the term first appeared in the [[Upanishad]]s. Thus, an ingrained and externally motivated influence led to the development of a large section of Hindus who grew to embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life, restricting their diet to plants and vegetables. About 30% of today's [[Hindu]] population, especially in orthodox communities in [[South India]], in certain northerly states like Gujurat, and in many [[Brahmin]] enclaves around the subcontinent, is vegetarian. Thus, while vegetarianism is not dogma, it is recommended as a [[sattwa|sattwic]] (purifying) lifestyle.

Those [[Hindus]] who do eat meat predominantly abstain from [[beef]], some even going so far as to avoid leather products. This is most likely because the largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations of Hindus throughout the centuries relied so heavily on the cow for all sorts of dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertiliser that its status as a willing 'caretaker' of humanity grew to identifying it as an almost maternal figure. Thus, while most Hindus do not worship the cow, and scriptural injunctions against eating beef arose long after the [[Veda]]s had been written, it still holds an honored place in Hindu society. It is said that [[Krishna]] is both Govinda (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and [[Shiva]]'s attendant is [[Nandi]], the bull. With the stress on vegetarianism (which is usually followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days or special occasions) and the sacred nature of the cow, it is no wonder that most holy cities and areas in India have a ban on selling meat-products and there is a movement among Hindus to ban cow-slaughter not only in specific regions, but in all of [[India]].

=== Forms of worship: murtis and mantras ===
Contrary to popular belief, practiced Hinduism is neither [[polytheism|polytheistic]] nor strictly [[monotheism|monotheistic]]. The various gods and avatars that are worshipped by Hindus are understood as different forms of One truth, sometimes seen as beyond a mere God and as a formless Divine Ground ([[Brahman]]), akin but not limited to [[monism]], or as one monotheistic principle like [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]].

Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people. Hinduism encourages devotees to describe and develop a personal relationship with their chosen deity (ishta devata) in the form of a God or Goddess.

While some censuses hold worshippers of one form or another of [[Vishnu]] (known as ''[[Vaishnav]]s'') to be at 80% and those of [[Shiva]] (called ''[[Shaivaites]]'') and [[Devi|Shakti]] at the remaining 20%, such figures are perhaps misleading. The vast majority of Hindus worship many gods as varicolored forms of the same prism of Truth. Among the most popular are [[Vishnu]] (as [[Krishna]] or [[Rama]]), [[Shiva]], [[Devi]] (the Mother as many female deities, such as [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Kali]] and [[Durga]]), [[Ganesha]], [[Skanda]] and [[Hanuman]].

Worship of the said deities is often done through the aid of pictures or icons (''murti'') which are said not to be God themselves but conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human soul that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the love and grandeur of [[God]]. They are symbols of the greater principle, representing and are never presumed to ''be'' the concept or entity itself. Thus, Hindu image worship is a form of [[icon|iconolatry]], in which the symbols are venerated as putative sigils of divinity, as opposed to [[idolatry]], a charge often levied (erroneously) at Hindus. For more details on this form of worship, see [[murti]].

===Mantra===
Reciting [[mantra]]s is a fundamental practice that both originated and now continues in Hinduism. Much of mantra yoga, as it is called, is done through japa (repetition). Mantras are said, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the [[sadhaka]] (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of [[Bhakti yoga]] akin to the understanding of the [[murti]]. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed, [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s dying words were a two-word [[mantra]] to the Lord [[Rama]]: ''"Hai Ram!"'' (pronounced ''Hey Ram'').

The most representative of all the Hindu mantras is the famed [[Gayatri Mantra]]:

:ॐ भूर्भुवस्व: | तत् सवितूर्वरेण्यम् | भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि | धियो यो न: प्रचोदयात्
:'' Aum bhūrbhuvasvaH'' | ''tat savitūrvareṇyam'' | ''bhargo devasya dhīmahi'' | ''dhiyo yo naH pracodayāt''

(/H/ stands for the voiceless aspirate called 'visarga'.)

A good explanation of this mantra can be found here:
[http://www.indiaoz.com.au/hinduism/prayer/gayatri_mantra.shtml]. It is considered one of the most universal of all Hindu mantras, and invokes the universal [[Brahman]] as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun, only in its feminine aspect. Many Hindus till today, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for at least 5,000 years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the [[Ganga]]/[[Ganges]]). Known as a universal mantra, it is revered as being the most condensed form of Divine Knowledge (Veda). Its presiding principle, Ma (Mother) Gayatri, is also known as [[Veda Mata]] (Mother of the Vedas) and is strongly associated with the Goddess of Learning and Illumination, [[Saraswati]].

The chief aim of the Vedic religion is to achieve [[moksha]], or liberation, through constant dedication to ''Satya'' (Truth) and eventual realization of the ''[[Atman]]'' (Universal Soul). Whether this is achieved through meditation or pure love, this universal goal is achievable by all. But it should be noted that Hinduism is a very practical faith, and is embodied in every aspect of life. It believes equally in the temporal as in the infinite, only it encourages perspective. The great [[rishi]]s (Hindu sages) have termed the samsaric (one who lives in samsara, i.e. the temporal or earthly plane) who succeeds in living an honest, loving and [[dharma|dharmic]] life a [[jivanmukta]] (living free soul). Hinduism's fundamental truth is best expressed in the [[Upanishad|Upanishadic]] dictum, ''Tat Twam Asi'' (Thou Art That), and the ultimate aspiration as follows:

:''Aum Asato ma sad gamaya, tamaso ma jyotir gamaya, mrityor ma aamritaam gamaya''
:"Aum Lead me from ignorance to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality."

For more details, see [[Mantra]].

== Hindu scriptures ==

Hindu [[scripture]] is overwhelmingly written in [[Sanskrit]]. Indeed, much of the [[morphology]] and [[linguistic]] philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is inextricably linked to study of the [[Veda]]s and relevant Hindu texts. Hindu texts are typically seen to revolve around many levels of reading, namely gross/physical, subtle and supramental. This allows for many levels of understanding as well, implying that the truth of the texts can only be realized with the spiritual advancement of the reader. It is divided into two categories: ''[[Shruti]]''- that which is heard (i.e. revelation) and ''[[Smriti]]''- that which is remembered (i.e. tradition, not revelation).

For a more thorough look at the important texts of Hinduism, see [[Hindu scripture]].

===Shruti===
The [[Veda]]s are considered scripture by all Hindus. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the [[Veda]]s, the reverence for the more abstract notion of eternal knowledge (''Veda'' means knowledge) is etched deep into the hearts of all those who follow Veda Dharma. Classed with the [[Veda]]s (which specifically refer to the [[Rig Veda|Rig/Rg]], [[Yajur Veda|Yajur]], [[Sama Veda|Sama]] and [[Atharva Veda]]s) are their famous commentaries, the [[Upanishad]]s. While the early Vedas lay the foundation for subsequent Hindu ritual, cosmology and developing philosophy, the [[Upanishads]] built the edifice of mystic insight and abhorrence for ritual at the expense of spiritual insight. Forming the core of the [[Vedanta]] (''End of Vedas''), they streamline the excessive litany of praise to [[Vedic]] gods and capture the essence of the Rig Vedic dictum "Truth Is One." They set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of a single transcendent and yet immanent force that is native to each man's soul, an identification of micro- and macrocosm as One. It can be said that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four [[Veda]]s, Classical Hinduism, from the [[Yoga]] and [[Vedanta]] to [[Tantra]] and [[Bhakti]] streams, was molded around the [[Upanishads]].

===Bhagavad Gita===
The [[Bhagavad Gita]] occupies a special position in the hearts of most Hindus as a keystone ''yoga upanishad'' whose eternal words perhaps are the most representative of all Hindu thought, each shloka 'directly' from the mouth of the Lord [[Krishna]]. While technically it is considered Smriti, it has singularly achieved nearly unquestioned status as Shruti, or revealed, and is thus the most definitive single Hindu text, read by millions of ''bhaktas'' (devotees) and ''yogis'' on a largely daily basis throughout the ''Sanatana Dharmic'' world. See [[Bhagavad Gita]] to explore this text.

===Smriti===
The post-Vedic Hindu scriptures form the latter category, the most notable of which are the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]'', major [[epic]]s considered scripture by most followers of Sanatana Dharma, their stories arguably familiar to the vast majoriy of Hindus living in the [[Indian subcontinent]], if not abroad. Other texts considered important by today's Hindus include the [[Devi Mahatmya]], an ode to [[Devi]], the Divine Mother, and the [[Yoga Sutras]], a key meditative yoga text of Shri [[Patanjali]]. There are also a number of revered Hindu [[Tantras]] and [[List of sutras|Sutras]] that command the respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the [[Mahanirvana Tantra]], [[Tirumantiram]] and [[Shiva Sutras]].

== References==
# [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=402241 Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia]
# [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online]

== See also ==

===Hindu terminology===
* [[Agnihotra]]
* [[Puja]]
* [[Rama-Lilas]]
* [[Rta]]

==External links==

* [http://www.arshavidya.org/ Arsha Vidya Gurukulam]
* [http://www.atributetohinduism.com/ ''A Tribute To Hinduism'']
* [http://www.afghanhindu.info/ www.afghanhindu.info]
* [http://www.caribbeanhindu.com/ www.caribbeanhindu.com]
* [http://www.encyclopediaofauthentichinduism.org/ ''Authentic Hinduism'' Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.chinfo.org/ Chinmaya International Foundation - ''The Maternal Ancestral Home of Shri AdhiSankaracharya and the Center for Advanced Sanskrit Research and Indology'']
* [http://www.chinmayamission.org/ Chinmaya Mission]
* [http://www.archaeolink.com/hindu_hinduism_general_resources.htm Collection of Scholarly and Academic links on Hinduism]
* [http://www.dharmacentral.com/ Dharma Central]
* [http://www.hindu.org/ Hindu.org]
* [http://www.hindubooks.org/ Hindubooks.org]
* [http://www.hindu-indonesia.com/ Hinduism in Indonesia]
* [http://www.hindukids.org/ Hindukids.org]
* [http://www.hindunet.org/ Hindunet.org]
* [http://www.hscnet.org/ Hindu Students Council (primarily in the Americas, but with international chapters)]
* [http://www.himalayanacademy.com/ himalayanacademy.com]
* [http://www.indology.net/ Indology.Net]
* [http://www.mandala.org/ Mandala Publishing: Award-winning Publisher of Hindu and Indian Spirituality-related books]
* [http://www.panchamukha.org/ Panchmukha.org (Five Faces)]
* [http://www.prapatti.com/ Prapatti: Vaishnava site with downloadable shlokas]
* [http://sanskrit.gde.to/ Sanskrit site with comprehensive library of texts]
* [http://www.saranam.com/ Saranam]
* [http://satsang.tripod.com/ Satsang: Hindu Bhajan - Text and Audio]
* [http://satsangh.tripod.com/ Satsangh: Hindu Puja - Text and Audio]
* [http://www.shivashakti.com/ ShivaShakti.com: Comprehensive Hindu Tantra site]
* [http://thetruehistoryandthereligionofindia.org/ ''True History & Religion of India'']
* [http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/ VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online]
* [http://www.vedah.com/org/index.asp Shri Aurobindo Kapali Sastri Institute of Vedic Culture]
* [http://www.vedanet.com/ Vedanet.com: American Institute of Vedic Studies]
* [http://www.vedanta.org/ Vedanta.org]
* [http://www.archive.org/movies/movieslisting-browse.php?collection=opensource_movies&cat=bharatanatyam Video of Hindu dance-worship in Bharatanatyam]

==References==

This text was edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism Hinduism]''. Retrieved Sept. 30, 2004.

Hinduism

2004-10-01T03:05:29Z

Phos: /* Forms of worship: murtis and mantras */

'''Hinduism''' ('''सनातन धर्म'''; ''Sanātana Dharma'', roughly Perennial Faith) is generally considered to be the oldest major world religion still practised today and first among [[Dharma]] faiths. Hinduism is characterized by a diverse array of belief systems, practices and scriptures. It has its origin in ancient [[Vedic]] culture at least as far back as 2000 CE. It is the third largest religion with approximately 1.05 billion followers worldwide, 96% of whom live in the Indian subcontinent.

Perhaps the Hindu spirit, inspired by no one man or woman in particular, is best captured in a line from the ancient [[Veda|Rig Veda]], the "oldest religious scripture in the world." ([[#References|1]]):

:[[Sanskrit]]: '''एकम् सत् विप्रा: बहुधा वदन्ति'''
:Transliteration: ''Ekam Sat Viprāha Bahudhā Vadanti''
:English: "Truth is One, though the Sages know it as Many."
::— ''The Rig Veda (Book I, Hymn CLXIV, Verse 46)''

Essentially, any kind of spiritual practice followed with faith, love and persistence will lead to the same ultimate state of self-realization. Thus, Hindu thought distinguishes itself by strongly encouraging tolerance for different beliefs since temporal systems cannot claim sole understanding of the one [[transcendental]] Truth.

To the Hindu, this idea has been an active force in defining the 'Eternal Dharma.' It has been for Hinduism what the infinite Divine Self of [[Advaita]] is to existence, remaining forever unchanged and self-luminous, central and pervasive, in spite of all the chaos and flux around it.

== Hinduism: a brief overview ==

Hinduism rests on the spiritual bedrock of the [[Vedas]], hence Veda [[Dharma]], and their mystic issue, the [[Upanishads]], as well as the teachings of many great Hindu [[guru]]s through the ages. Many streams of thought flow from the six Vedic/Hindu [[Hindu philosophy|schools]], [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]] sects and [[Tantra]] Agamic schools into the one ocean of Hinduism, the first of the Dharma religions. See [[Schools of Hinduism]].

===The Eternal Way===
"The Eternal Way" (in [[Sanskrit]] सनातन धर्म, ''Sanātana Dharma''), or the "Perennial Philosophy/Harmony/Faith", is the one name that has represented Hinduism for many thousands of years. According to Hindus, it speaks to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure [[science]] of [[consciousness]]. But this consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a supramental soul-state that exists within ''and'' beyond our existence, the unsullied Self of all. Religion to the Hindu is the native search for the divine within the Self, the search to find the One truth that in actuality never was lost. Truth sought with faith shall yield itself in blissful luminescence no matter the race or creed professed. Indeed, all existence, from vegetation and beasts to mankind, are subjects and objects of the eternal Dharma. This inherent faith, therefore, is also known as Arya/Noble Dharma, Veda/Knowledge Dharma, Yoga/Union Dharma, Hindu Dharma or, simply, the [[Dharma]].

What can be said to be common to all Hindus is belief in [[Dharma]], [[reincarnation]], [[karma]], and [[moksha]] (liberation) of every soul through a variety of moral, action-based, and meditative [[yoga]]s. Still more fundamental principles include [[ahimsa]] (non-violence), the primacy of the [[Guru]], the Divine Word of [[Aum]] and the power of [[mantra]]s, love of Truth in many manifestations as Gods and Goddessess, and an understanding that the essential spark of the Divine ([[Atman]]/[[Brahman]]) is in every human and living being, thus allowing for many spiritual paths leading to the One Unitary Truth.

An example of the pervasiveness of this paramount truth-seeking spirituality in daily life is the ''bindi'' (seen left), which is a common marker for Hindu women. It symbolizes the need to cultivate supramental consciousness, which is achieved by opening the mystic "third eye." Hindus across the board stress meditative insight, an intuition beyond the mind and body, a trait that is often associated with the ascetic god [[Shiva]]. Men, too, will bear on their foreheads the equivalent ''tilak'' mark, usually on religious occasions, its shape often representing particular devotion to a certain main deity: a 'U' shape stands for [[Vishnu]], a group of three lines for [[Shiva]]. It is not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying ''Hari-Hara'' (Vishnu-Shiva indissoluble).

===Yoga Dharma===
Hinduism is practiced through a variety of [[Yoga]]s (spiritual practices), primarily [[bhakti yoga|bhakti]] (loving devotion), [[Karma Yoga]] (selfless service), [[Raja Yoga]] (meditational Yoga) and [[Jnana Yoga]] (Yoga of discrimination). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu [[Yoga]]: The [[Bhagavad Gita]] and the [[Yoga Sutras]]. The [[Upanishad]]s are also very important as a philosophical foundation for this rational spiritualism.

===The four goals of life===
Another major aspect of Hindu dharma that is common to practically all Hindus is that of ''purushartha'', the "four goals of life". They are ''kama'', ''artha'', ''[[dharma]]'' and ''[[moksha]]''. It is said that all humans seek ''kama'' (pleasure, physical or emotional) and ''artha'' (power, fame and wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within a higher, pragmatic framework of ''dharma'', or moral harmony in all. Of course, the only goal that is truly infinite, whose attainment results in absolute happiness, is ''[[moksha]]'', or liberation, (a.k.a. ''[[Mukti]]'', ''[[Samadhi]]'', [[Nirvana]], etc.) from ''[[Samsara]]'', the cycle of life, death, and existential duality.

===The four stages of life===
The human life is also seen as four ''Ashramas'' ("phases" or "stages"). They are [[Brahmacharya]], [[Grihastha|Grihasthya]], [[Vanaprastha]] and [[Sanyasa]]. The first quarter of one's life, ''brahmacharya'' (literally "grazing in Brahma") is spent in celibate, sober and pure contemplation of life's secrets under a [[Guru]], building up body and mind for the responsibilities of life. Grihastya is the householder's stage, alternatively known as samsara, in which one marries and satisfies kama and artha within a married life and professional career. Vanaprastha is gradual detachment from the material world, ostensibly giving over duties to one's sons and daughters, spending more time in contemplation of the truth, and making holy pilgrimages. Finally, in sanyasa, the individual goes off into seclusion, often envisioned as the forest, to find God through Yogic meditation and peacefully shed the body for the next life.

=== Views of God ===

Within [[Sanatana Dharma]], or Hinduism (as it is commonly called), a variety of lesser gods are seen as aspects of the one impersonal divine ground, [[Brahman]] (not Brahma). Brahman is the ultimate, both [[transcendent]] and immanent the absolute infinite existence, the sum total of all that ever is, was, or ever shall be. Brahman is not a God in the monotheistic since, as it is not imbued with any limiting characteristics, not even those of being and non-being, and this is reflected in the fact that in [[Sanskrit]], the word brahman is of neuter (as opposed to masculine or feminine) gender.

[[Vedanta]] is a branch of [[Hindu philosophy]] which gives this matter a greater focus. [[Yoga]] is the primary focus in many ways of a Hindu's religious activities, being somewhere between [[meditation]], [[prayer]] and healthful [[exercise]].

Some of Hinduism's adherents are [[monist]]s, seeing in multiple manifestations of the one God or source of being, which is often confused by non-Hindus as being [[polytheism]]. It is seen as one unity, with the lesser gods aspects of the one, like a single beam of light separated into colours by a prism, and seen by some as valid to worship. Some of the Hindu gods and goddesses include [[Devi]], [[Vishnu]], [[Ganesh]], and [[Siva]]. Many even believe they may be able to bring worshippers closer to [[Moksha]], end of the [[reincarnation|cycle of rebirth]].

Some sects of Hinduism believe in a monotheistic ideal of [[Vishnu]] (often as [[Krishna]]), [[Shiva]], or [[Devi]]; this view does not exclude other gods, as they are understood to be aspects of the chosen ideal (e.g. to many devotees of Krishna, Shiva is seen as having sprung from Krishna's creative force). Often, the monad Brahman is seen as the one source, with all other gods emanating therefrom. Thus, with all Hindus, there is a strong belief in all paths being true religions that lead to one God or source, whatever one chooses to call the ultimate truth.

== Origins, nomenclature and society ==

===Historical origins and aspects of society===
Relatively little is known about the origins of Hinduism, as it predates [[recorded history]]. It has been said to derive from beliefs of the [[Aryan]]s, ('noble' followers of the [[Vedas]]), [[Dravidian]]s, and [[Harappan]]s living in the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism subsequently birthed [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], which in turn affected the development of their mother religion. Varying ideas of the origin of the [[Veda]] and understandings of whether or not the Aryans were native or foreign to Indian soil can change estimates of Hinduism's age from 4000 to 6000 years. See [[Early Hinduism]] and [[Aryan Invasion Theory]].

Historically, the word ''Hindu'' predates the reference to Hinduism as a religion; the term is of Persian origin and first referred to people who lived on the other side (from a Persian point of view) of the [[Sindhu]] or [[Indus river]]. It was used as a signifier not only of ethnicity but of Vedic religion as far back as the 15th and 16th centuries by such figures as [[Guru Nanak]] (the founder of [[Sikhism]]). During the [[British Raj]], the term's use was made standard, and eventually, the religion of the Vedic Hindoos was given the appelation 'Hinduism.' In actuality, it was merely a new signifier for a culture that had been thriving for millennia before. See the [[Hindu (ethnicity)]] page for more discussion.

===Yoga===

The [[Yoga]] system is generally considered to have arisen from the [[Samkhya]] philosophy. The ''yoga'' referred to here, however, is specifically Raja Yoga (or meditational union). It is based on the sage [[Patanjali]]'s extremely influential text entitled the [[Yoga Sutra]], which is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy that came before. [[Upanishads]] and [[Bhagavad Gita]] are also indispensable literature in the study of Yoga.

The most significant difference from [[Samkhya]] is that the Yoga school not only incorporates the concept of [[Ishvara]] (a personal God) into its metaphysical worldview but also that it holds Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate. This is because Ishvara is the only aspect of [[purusha]] (the infinite Divine Ground) that has not become entangled with prakrti (the temporal creative forces). It also utilizes the [[Brahman]]/Atman terminology and concepts that are found in depth in the [[Upanishad]]s, adopting Vedantic [[monism|monist]] concepts. Realization of the goal of Yoga is known as [[moksha]] or [[samadhi]]. It, like the [[Upanishad]]s, seeks realization of the Atman as being nothing other than the infinite Brahman through ethical (mind), physical (body) and meditational (soul) practices of one-pointedness on the 'one supreme truth.' See [[Yoga]] for an in-depth look at its history.

===Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta===
The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school is perhaps one of the cornerstone movements of Hinduism and certainly was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative inquiry, renewal of faith, and cultural reform. Primarily associated with the [[Upanishad]]s and their commentary by [[Badarayana]], the [[Vedanta Sutra]]s, Vedanta thought split into three groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of [[Adi Sankara]]. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] thought, which focused on meditation, morality and centeredness on the one Self rather than on rituals and meaningless societal distinctions like [[caste]]. See [[Vedanta]] for greater depth.

====Pure Monism: Advaita Vedanta====
Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness. Its consolidator was [[Adi_Sankara|Sankara]] ([[788?]]-[[820?]]). Sankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the [[Upanishad]]s and his own [[guru]] [[Govinda Bhagavadpada]]. By analysis of experiential consciousness, he exposed the relative nature of the world and established the non-dual reality of Brahman in which [[Atman]] (the individual soul) and [[Brahman]] (the ultimate reality) are identified absolutely. It is not merely philosophy, but a conscious system of applied ethics and meditation, all geared towards attaining peace and understanding of truth. Adi Sankara denounced [[caste]] and meaningless [[ritual]] as foolish, and in his own charismatic manner, exhorted the true devotee to meditate on God's love and apprehend truth. See [[Advaita]] for more.

====Qualified Monism: Vishistadvaita Vedanta====
[[Ramanuja]] ([[1040]] - [[1137]]) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman Narayana as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate reality had three aspects: Isvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.

====Dualism: Dvaita Vedanta====
Like Ramanuja, [[Madhva]] ([[1199]] - [[1278]]) identified god with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta.

==Alternative cultures of worship==

===The Bhakti schools===
The [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]] (Devotional) school is takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming love of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to tap into the universal divinity through personal form, which explains the proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people. Seen as a form of [[Yoga]], or union, it seeks to dissolve the ego in God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a divisive factor in spiritual realization. Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even transcended, through the love of God. The [[Bhakti]] movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of faith and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India. They can rightly be said to have affected the greatest wave of change in Hindu prayer and ritual since ancient times.

The most popular means of expressing love for God in the Hindu tradition has been through ''puja'', or ritual devotion, frequently using the aid of a ''[[#Forms of worship: icons and mantras|murti]]'' (statue) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of [[mantra]]s. Devotional songs called [[bhajan]]s (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), [[kirtan]] (praise), and [[arti]] (a filtered down form of Vedic fire ritual) are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of puja. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic medium. It is said, however, that the ''bhakta'', through a growing connection with God, is eventually able to eschew all external form and is immersed entirely in the bliss of undifferentiated Love in Truth.

Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the world and gave India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing unnecessary ritual and artificial social boundaries. See [[bhakti yoga]] for more.

===Tantrism===
According to the most famous Western Tantrik scholar, Sir John Woodroffe (pseudonym Arthur Avalon): "The Indian Tantras, which are numerous, constitute the Scripture (Shastra) of the Kaliyuga, and as such are the voluminous source of present and practical orthodox 'Hinduism'. The Tantra Shastra is, in fact, and whatever be its historical origin, a development of the Vaidika Karmakanda, promulgated to meet the needs of that age. Shiva says: 'For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given' (Chap. IX., verse 12). To the Tantra we must therefore look if we would understand aright both ritual, yoga, and sadhana of all kinds, as also the general principles of which these practices are but the objective expression." (Introduction to Sir John Woodroffe's translation of "Mahanirvana Tantra.")

The word "[[tantra]]" means "treatise" or "continuum", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as to those which we would now regard as "tantric". Most tantras were written in the late middle ages and sprang from Hindu cosmology and [[Yoga]]. See [[Tantra]] for more.

== Important symbolism and themes in Hinduism==

=== Ahimsa and the cow ===
A note of the element of ahimsa in Hinduism is vital to understanding the society that has arisen around some of its principles. While [[Jainism]] as it was practiced was certainly a major influence on Indian society, what with its exhortation of strict [[veganism]] and non-violence as ''ahimsa'', the term first appeared in the [[Upanishad]]s. Thus, an ingrained and externally motivated influence led to the development of a large section of Hindus who grew to embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life, restricting their diet to plants and vegetables. About 30% of today's [[Hindu]] population, especially in orthodox communities in [[South India]], in certain northerly states like Gujurat, and in many [[Brahmin]] enclaves around the subcontinent, is vegetarian. Thus, while vegetarianism is not dogma, it is recommended as a [[sattwa|sattwic]] (purifying) lifestyle.

Those [[Hindus]] who do eat meat predominantly abstain from [[beef]], some even going so far as to avoid leather products. This is most likely because the largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations of Hindus throughout the centuries relied so heavily on the cow for all sorts of dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertiliser that its status as a willing 'caretaker' of humanity grew to identifying it as an almost maternal figure. Thus, while most Hindus do not worship the cow, and scriptural injunctions against eating beef arose long after the [[Veda]]s had been written, it still holds an honored place in Hindu society. It is said that [[Krishna]] is both Govinda (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and [[Shiva]]'s attendant is [[Nandi]], the bull. With the stress on vegetarianism (which is usually followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days or special occasions) and the sacred nature of the cow, it is no wonder that most holy cities and areas in India have a ban on selling meat-products and there is a movement among Hindus to ban cow-slaughter not only in specific regions, but in all of [[India]].

=== Forms of worship: murtis and mantras ===
Contrary to popular belief, practiced Hinduism is neither [[polytheism|polytheistic]] nor strictly [[monotheism|monotheistic]]. The various gods and avatars that are worshipped by Hindus are understood as different forms of One truth, sometimes seen as beyond a mere God and as a formless Divine Ground ([[Brahman]]), akin but not limited to [[monism]], or as one monotheistic principle like [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]].

Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people. Hinduism encourages devotees to describe and develop a personal relationship with their chosen deity (ishta devata) in the form of a God or Goddess.

While some censuses hold worshippers of one form or another of [[Vishnu]] (known as ''[[Vaishnav]]s'') to be at 80% and those of [[Shiva]] (called ''[[Shaivaites]]'') and [[Devi|Shakti]] at the remaining 20%, such figures are perhaps misleading. The vast majority of Hindus worship many gods as varicolored forms of the same prism of Truth. Among the most popular are [[Vishnu]] (as [[Krishna]] or [[Rama]]), [[Shiva]], [[Devi]] (the Mother as many female deities, such as [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Kali]] and [[Durga]]), [[Ganesha]], [[Skanda]] and [[Hanuman]].

Worship of the said deities is often done through the aid of pictures or icons (''murti'') which are said not to be God themselves but conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human soul that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the love and grandeur of [[God]]. They are symbols of the greater principle, representing and are never presumed to ''be'' the concept or entity itself. Thus, Hindu image worship is a form of [[icon|iconolatry]], in which the symbols are venerated as putative sigils of divinity, as opposed to [[idolatry]], a charge often levied (erroneously) at Hindus. For more details on this form of worship, see [[murti]].

===Mantra===
Reciting [[mantra]]s is a fundamental practice that both originated and now continues in Hinduism. Much of mantra yoga, as it is called, is done through japa (repetition). Mantras are said, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the [[sadhaka]] (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of [[Bhakti yoga]] akin to the understanding of the [[murti]]. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed, [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s dying words were a two-word [[mantra]] to the Lord [[Rama]]: ''"Hai Ram!"'' (pronounced ''Hey Ram'').

The most representative of all the Hindu mantras is the famed [[Gayatri Mantra]]:

:ॐ भूर्भुवस्व: | तत् सवितूर्वरेण्यम् | भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि | धियो यो न: प्रचोदयात्
:'' Aum bhūrbhuvasvaH'' | ''tat savitūrvareṇyam'' | ''bhargo devasya dhīmahi'' | ''dhiyo yo naH pracodayāt''

(/H/ stands for the voiceless aspirate called 'visarga'.)

A good explanation of this mantra can be found here:
[http://www.indiaoz.com.au/hinduism/prayer/gayatri_mantra.shtml]. It is considered one of the most universal of all Hindu mantras, and invokes the universal [[Brahman]] as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun, only in its feminine aspect. Many Hindus till today, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for at least 5,000 years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the [[Ganga]]/[[Ganges]]). Known as a universal mantra, it is revered as being the most condensed form of Divine Knowledge (Veda). Its presiding principle, Ma (Mother) Gayatri, is also known as [[Veda Mata]] (Mother of the Vedas) and is strongly associated with the Goddess of Learning and Illumination, [[Saraswati]].

The chief aim of the Vedic religion is to achieve [[moksha]], or liberation, through constant dedication to ''Satya'' (Truth) and eventual realization of the ''[[Atman]]'' (Universal Soul). Whether this is achieved through meditation or pure love, this universal goal is achievable by all. But it should be noted that Hinduism is a very practical faith, and is embodied in every aspect of life. It believes equally in the temporal as in the infinite, only it encourages perspective. The great [[rishi]]s (Hindu sages) have termed the samsaric (one who lives in samsara, i.e. the temporal or earthly plane) who succeeds in living an honest, loving and [[dharma|dharmic]] life a [[jivanmukta]] (living free soul). Hinduism's fundamental truth is best expressed in the [[Upanishad|Upanishadic]] dictum, ''Tat Twam Asi'' (Thou Art That), and the ultimate aspiration as follows:

:''Aum Asato ma sad gamaya, tamaso ma jyotir gamaya, mrityor ma aamritaam gamaya''
:"Aum Lead me from ignorance to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality."

For more details, see [[Mantra]].

== Hindu scriptures ==

Hindu [[scripture]] is overwhelmingly written in [[Sanskrit]]. Indeed, much of the [[morphology]] and [[linguistic]] philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is inextricably linked to study of the [[Veda]]s and relevant Hindu texts. Hindu texts are typically seen to revolve around many levels of reading, namely gross/physical, subtle and supramental. This allows for many levels of understanding as well, implying that the truth of the texts can only be realized with the spiritual advancement of the reader. It is divided into two categories: ''[[Shruti]]''- that which is heard (i.e. revelation) and ''[[Smriti]]''- that which is remembered (i.e. tradition, not revelation).

For a more thorough look at the important texts of Hinduism, see [[Hindu scripture]].

===Shruti===
The [[Veda]]s are considered scripture by all Hindus. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the [[Veda]]s, the reverence for the more abstract notion of eternal knowledge (''Veda'' means knowledge) is etched deep into the hearts of all those who follow Veda Dharma. Classed with the [[Veda]]s (which specifically refer to the [[Rig Veda|Rig/Rg]], [[Yajur Veda|Yajur]], [[Sama Veda|Sama]] and [[Atharva Veda]]s) are their famous commentaries, the [[Upanishad]]s. While the early Vedas lay the foundation for subsequent Hindu ritual, cosmology and developing philosophy, the [[Upanishads]] built the edifice of mystic insight and abhorrence for ritual at the expense of spiritual insight. Forming the core of the [[Vedanta]] (''End of Vedas''), they streamline the excessive litany of praise to [[Vedic]] gods and capture the essence of the Rig Vedic dictum "Truth Is One." They set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of a single transcendent and yet immanent force that is native to each man's soul, an identification of micro- and macrocosm as One. It can be said that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four [[Veda]]s, Classical Hinduism, from the [[Yoga]] and [[Vedanta]] to [[Tantra]] and [[Bhakti]] streams, was molded around the [[Upanishads]].

===Bhagavad Gita===
The [[Bhagavad Gita]] occupies a special position in the hearts of most Hindus as a keystone ''yoga upanishad'' whose eternal words perhaps are the most representative of all Hindu thought, each shloka 'directly' from the mouth of the Lord [[Krishna]]. While technically it is considered Smriti, it has singularly achieved nearly unquestioned status as Shruti, or revealed, and is thus the most definitive single Hindu text, read by millions of ''bhaktas'' (devotees) and ''yogis'' on a largely daily basis throughout the ''Sanatana Dharmic'' world. See [[Bhagavad Gita]] to explore this text.

===Smriti===
The post-Vedic Hindu scriptures form the latter category, the most notable of which are the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]'', major [[epic]]s considered scripture by most followers of Sanatana Dharma, their stories arguably familiar to the vast majoriy of Hindus living in the [[Indian subcontinent]], if not abroad. Other texts considered important by today's Hindus include the [[Devi Mahatmya]], an ode to [[Devi]], the Divine Mother, and the [[Yoga Sutras]], a key meditative yoga text of Shri [[Patanjali]]. There are also a number of revered Hindu [[Tantras]] and [[List of sutras|Sutras]] that command the respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the [[Mahanirvana Tantra]], [[Tirumantiram]] and [[Shiva Sutras]].

== References==
# [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=402241 Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia]
# [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online]

== See also ==

===Important Hindu Scripture===
* [[Veda]]s
* [[Upanishad]]s
* [[Vedanta Sutra]]s
* [[Bhagavad Gita]]
* [[Mahabharata]]
* [[Ramayana]]
* [[Devi Mahatmya]]
* [[Yoga Sutra]]s

===Hindu terminology===
* [[Agnihotra]]
* [[Puja]]
* [[Rama-Lilas]]
* [[Rta]]

==External links==

* [http://www.arshavidya.org/ Arsha Vidya Gurukulam]
* [http://www.atributetohinduism.com/ ''A Tribute To Hinduism'']
* [http://www.afghanhindu.info/ www.afghanhindu.info]
* [http://www.caribbeanhindu.com/ www.caribbeanhindu.com]
* [http://www.encyclopediaofauthentichinduism.org/ ''Authentic Hinduism'' Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.chinfo.org/ Chinmaya International Foundation - ''The Maternal Ancestral Home of Shri AdhiSankaracharya and the Center for Advanced Sanskrit Research and Indology'']
* [http://www.chinmayamission.org/ Chinmaya Mission]
* [http://www.archaeolink.com/hindu_hinduism_general_resources.htm Collection of Scholarly and Academic links on Hinduism]
* [http://www.dharmacentral.com/ Dharma Central]
* [http://www.hindu.org/ Hindu.org]
* [http://www.hindubooks.org/ Hindubooks.org]
* [http://www.hindu-indonesia.com/ Hinduism in Indonesia]
* [http://www.hindukids.org/ Hindukids.org]
* [http://www.hindunet.org/ Hindunet.org]
* [http://www.hscnet.org/ Hindu Students Council (primarily in the Americas, but with international chapters)]
* [http://www.himalayanacademy.com/ himalayanacademy.com]
* [http://www.indology.net/ Indology.Net]
* [http://www.mandala.org/ Mandala Publishing: Award-winning Publisher of Hindu and Indian Spirituality-related books]
* [http://www.panchamukha.org/ Panchmukha.org (Five Faces)]
* [http://www.prapatti.com/ Prapatti: Vaishnava site with downloadable shlokas]
* [http://sanskrit.gde.to/ Sanskrit site with comprehensive library of texts]
* [http://www.saranam.com/ Saranam]
* [http://satsang.tripod.com/ Satsang: Hindu Bhajan - Text and Audio]
* [http://satsangh.tripod.com/ Satsangh: Hindu Puja - Text and Audio]
* [http://www.shivashakti.com/ ShivaShakti.com: Comprehensive Hindu Tantra site]
* [http://thetruehistoryandthereligionofindia.org/ ''True History & Religion of India'']
* [http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/ VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online]
* [http://www.vedah.com/org/index.asp Shri Aurobindo Kapali Sastri Institute of Vedic Culture]
* [http://www.vedanet.com/ Vedanet.com: American Institute of Vedic Studies]
* [http://www.vedanta.org/ Vedanta.org]
* [http://www.archive.org/movies/movieslisting-browse.php?collection=opensource_movies&cat=bharatanatyam Video of Hindu dance-worship in Bharatanatyam]

==References==

This text was edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism Hinduism]''. Retrieved Sept. 30, 2004.

Hinduism

2004-10-01T03:03:52Z

Phos: needs some context re: AC/Thelema

'''Hinduism''' ('''सनातन धर्म'''; ''Sanātana Dharma'', roughly Perennial Faith) is generally considered to be the oldest major world religion still practised today and first among [[Dharma]] faiths. Hinduism is characterized by a diverse array of belief systems, practices and scriptures. It has its origin in ancient [[Vedic]] culture at least as far back as 2000 CE. It is the third largest religion with approximately 1.05 billion followers worldwide, 96% of whom live in the Indian subcontinent.

Perhaps the Hindu spirit, inspired by no one man or woman in particular, is best captured in a line from the ancient [[Veda|Rig Veda]], the "oldest religious scripture in the world." ([[#References|1]]):

:[[Sanskrit]]: '''एकम् सत् विप्रा: बहुधा वदन्ति'''
:Transliteration: ''Ekam Sat Viprāha Bahudhā Vadanti''
:English: "Truth is One, though the Sages know it as Many."
::— ''The Rig Veda (Book I, Hymn CLXIV, Verse 46)''

Essentially, any kind of spiritual practice followed with faith, love and persistence will lead to the same ultimate state of self-realization. Thus, Hindu thought distinguishes itself by strongly encouraging tolerance for different beliefs since temporal systems cannot claim sole understanding of the one [[transcendental]] Truth.

To the Hindu, this idea has been an active force in defining the 'Eternal Dharma.' It has been for Hinduism what the infinite Divine Self of [[Advaita]] is to existence, remaining forever unchanged and self-luminous, central and pervasive, in spite of all the chaos and flux around it.

== Hinduism: a brief overview ==

Hinduism rests on the spiritual bedrock of the [[Vedas]], hence Veda [[Dharma]], and their mystic issue, the [[Upanishads]], as well as the teachings of many great Hindu [[guru]]s through the ages. Many streams of thought flow from the six Vedic/Hindu [[Hindu philosophy|schools]], [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]] sects and [[Tantra]] Agamic schools into the one ocean of Hinduism, the first of the Dharma religions. See [[Schools of Hinduism]].

===The Eternal Way===
"The Eternal Way" (in [[Sanskrit]] सनातन धर्म, ''Sanātana Dharma''), or the "Perennial Philosophy/Harmony/Faith", is the one name that has represented Hinduism for many thousands of years. According to Hindus, it speaks to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure [[science]] of [[consciousness]]. But this consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a supramental soul-state that exists within ''and'' beyond our existence, the unsullied Self of all. Religion to the Hindu is the native search for the divine within the Self, the search to find the One truth that in actuality never was lost. Truth sought with faith shall yield itself in blissful luminescence no matter the race or creed professed. Indeed, all existence, from vegetation and beasts to mankind, are subjects and objects of the eternal Dharma. This inherent faith, therefore, is also known as Arya/Noble Dharma, Veda/Knowledge Dharma, Yoga/Union Dharma, Hindu Dharma or, simply, the [[Dharma]].

What can be said to be common to all Hindus is belief in [[Dharma]], [[reincarnation]], [[karma]], and [[moksha]] (liberation) of every soul through a variety of moral, action-based, and meditative [[yoga]]s. Still more fundamental principles include [[ahimsa]] (non-violence), the primacy of the [[Guru]], the Divine Word of [[Aum]] and the power of [[mantra]]s, love of Truth in many manifestations as Gods and Goddessess, and an understanding that the essential spark of the Divine ([[Atman]]/[[Brahman]]) is in every human and living being, thus allowing for many spiritual paths leading to the One Unitary Truth.

An example of the pervasiveness of this paramount truth-seeking spirituality in daily life is the ''bindi'' (seen left), which is a common marker for Hindu women. It symbolizes the need to cultivate supramental consciousness, which is achieved by opening the mystic "third eye." Hindus across the board stress meditative insight, an intuition beyond the mind and body, a trait that is often associated with the ascetic god [[Shiva]]. Men, too, will bear on their foreheads the equivalent ''tilak'' mark, usually on religious occasions, its shape often representing particular devotion to a certain main deity: a 'U' shape stands for [[Vishnu]], a group of three lines for [[Shiva]]. It is not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying ''Hari-Hara'' (Vishnu-Shiva indissoluble).

===Yoga Dharma===
Hinduism is practiced through a variety of [[Yoga]]s (spiritual practices), primarily [[bhakti yoga|bhakti]] (loving devotion), [[Karma Yoga]] (selfless service), [[Raja Yoga]] (meditational Yoga) and [[Jnana Yoga]] (Yoga of discrimination). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu [[Yoga]]: The [[Bhagavad Gita]] and the [[Yoga Sutras]]. The [[Upanishad]]s are also very important as a philosophical foundation for this rational spiritualism.

===The four goals of life===
Another major aspect of Hindu dharma that is common to practically all Hindus is that of ''purushartha'', the "four goals of life". They are ''kama'', ''artha'', ''[[dharma]]'' and ''[[moksha]]''. It is said that all humans seek ''kama'' (pleasure, physical or emotional) and ''artha'' (power, fame and wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within a higher, pragmatic framework of ''dharma'', or moral harmony in all. Of course, the only goal that is truly infinite, whose attainment results in absolute happiness, is ''[[moksha]]'', or liberation, (a.k.a. ''[[Mukti]]'', ''[[Samadhi]]'', [[Nirvana]], etc.) from ''[[Samsara]]'', the cycle of life, death, and existential duality.

===The four stages of life===
The human life is also seen as four ''Ashramas'' ("phases" or "stages"). They are [[Brahmacharya]], [[Grihastha|Grihasthya]], [[Vanaprastha]] and [[Sanyasa]]. The first quarter of one's life, ''brahmacharya'' (literally "grazing in Brahma") is spent in celibate, sober and pure contemplation of life's secrets under a [[Guru]], building up body and mind for the responsibilities of life. Grihastya is the householder's stage, alternatively known as samsara, in which one marries and satisfies kama and artha within a married life and professional career. Vanaprastha is gradual detachment from the material world, ostensibly giving over duties to one's sons and daughters, spending more time in contemplation of the truth, and making holy pilgrimages. Finally, in sanyasa, the individual goes off into seclusion, often envisioned as the forest, to find God through Yogic meditation and peacefully shed the body for the next life.

=== Views of God ===

Within [[Sanatana Dharma]], or Hinduism (as it is commonly called), a variety of lesser gods are seen as aspects of the one impersonal divine ground, [[Brahman]] (not Brahma). Brahman is the ultimate, both [[transcendent]] and immanent the absolute infinite existence, the sum total of all that ever is, was, or ever shall be. Brahman is not a God in the monotheistic since, as it is not imbued with any limiting characteristics, not even those of being and non-being, and this is reflected in the fact that in [[Sanskrit]], the word brahman is of neuter (as opposed to masculine or feminine) gender.

[[Vedanta]] is a branch of [[Hindu philosophy]] which gives this matter a greater focus. [[Yoga]] is the primary focus in many ways of a Hindu's religious activities, being somewhere between [[meditation]], [[prayer]] and healthful [[exercise]].

Some of Hinduism's adherents are [[monist]]s, seeing in multiple manifestations of the one God or source of being, which is often confused by non-Hindus as being [[polytheism]]. It is seen as one unity, with the lesser gods aspects of the one, like a single beam of light separated into colours by a prism, and seen by some as valid to worship. Some of the Hindu gods and goddesses include [[Devi]], [[Vishnu]], [[Ganesh]], and [[Siva]]. Many even believe they may be able to bring worshippers closer to [[Moksha]], end of the [[reincarnation|cycle of rebirth]].

Some sects of Hinduism believe in a monotheistic ideal of [[Vishnu]] (often as [[Krishna]]), [[Shiva]], or [[Devi]]; this view does not exclude other gods, as they are understood to be aspects of the chosen ideal (e.g. to many devotees of Krishna, Shiva is seen as having sprung from Krishna's creative force). Often, the monad Brahman is seen as the one source, with all other gods emanating therefrom. Thus, with all Hindus, there is a strong belief in all paths being true religions that lead to one God or source, whatever one chooses to call the ultimate truth.

== Origins, nomenclature and society ==

===Historical origins and aspects of society===
Relatively little is known about the origins of Hinduism, as it predates [[recorded history]]. It has been said to derive from beliefs of the [[Aryan]]s, ('noble' followers of the [[Vedas]]), [[Dravidian]]s, and [[Harappan]]s living in the Indian subcontinent. Hinduism subsequently birthed [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], which in turn affected the development of their mother religion. Varying ideas of the origin of the [[Veda]] and understandings of whether or not the Aryans were native or foreign to Indian soil can change estimates of Hinduism's age from 4000 to 6000 years. See [[Early Hinduism]] and [[Aryan Invasion Theory]].

Historically, the word ''Hindu'' predates the reference to Hinduism as a religion; the term is of Persian origin and first referred to people who lived on the other side (from a Persian point of view) of the [[Sindhu]] or [[Indus river]]. It was used as a signifier not only of ethnicity but of Vedic religion as far back as the 15th and 16th centuries by such figures as [[Guru Nanak]] (the founder of [[Sikhism]]). During the [[British Raj]], the term's use was made standard, and eventually, the religion of the Vedic Hindoos was given the appelation 'Hinduism.' In actuality, it was merely a new signifier for a culture that had been thriving for millennia before. See the [[Hindu (ethnicity)]] page for more discussion.

===Yoga===

The [[Yoga]] system is generally considered to have arisen from the [[Samkhya]] philosophy. The ''yoga'' referred to here, however, is specifically Raja Yoga (or meditational union). It is based on the sage [[Patanjali]]'s extremely influential text entitled the [[Yoga Sutra]], which is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy that came before. [[Upanishads]] and [[Bhagavad Gita]] are also indispensable literature in the study of Yoga.

The most significant difference from [[Samkhya]] is that the Yoga school not only incorporates the concept of [[Ishvara]] (a personal God) into its metaphysical worldview but also that it holds Ishvara as the ideal upon which to meditate. This is because Ishvara is the only aspect of [[purusha]] (the infinite Divine Ground) that has not become entangled with prakrti (the temporal creative forces). It also utilizes the [[Brahman]]/Atman terminology and concepts that are found in depth in the [[Upanishad]]s, adopting Vedantic [[monism|monist]] concepts. Realization of the goal of Yoga is known as [[moksha]] or [[samadhi]]. It, like the [[Upanishad]]s, seeks realization of the Atman as being nothing other than the infinite Brahman through ethical (mind), physical (body) and meditational (soul) practices of one-pointedness on the 'one supreme truth.' See [[Yoga]] for an in-depth look at its history.

===Uttara Mimamsa: The Three Schools of Vedanta===
The Uttara ("later") Mimamsa school is perhaps one of the cornerstone movements of Hinduism and certainly was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative inquiry, renewal of faith, and cultural reform. Primarily associated with the [[Upanishad]]s and their commentary by [[Badarayana]], the [[Vedanta Sutra]]s, Vedanta thought split into three groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of [[Adi Sankara]]. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] thought, which focused on meditation, morality and centeredness on the one Self rather than on rituals and meaningless societal distinctions like [[caste]]. See [[Vedanta]] for greater depth.

====Pure Monism: Advaita Vedanta====
Advaita literally means "not two"; thus this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) system, which emphasises oneness. Its consolidator was [[Adi_Sankara|Sankara]] ([[788?]]-[[820?]]). Sankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the [[Upanishad]]s and his own [[guru]] [[Govinda Bhagavadpada]]. By analysis of experiential consciousness, he exposed the relative nature of the world and established the non-dual reality of Brahman in which [[Atman]] (the individual soul) and [[Brahman]] (the ultimate reality) are identified absolutely. It is not merely philosophy, but a conscious system of applied ethics and meditation, all geared towards attaining peace and understanding of truth. Adi Sankara denounced [[caste]] and meaningless [[ritual]] as foolish, and in his own charismatic manner, exhorted the true devotee to meditate on God's love and apprehend truth. See [[Advaita]] for more.

====Qualified Monism: Vishistadvaita Vedanta====
[[Ramanuja]] ([[1040]] - [[1137]]) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman Narayana as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate reality had three aspects: Isvara (Vishnu), cit (soul) and acit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.

====Dualism: Dvaita Vedanta====
Like Ramanuja, [[Madhva]] ([[1199]] - [[1278]]) identified god with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta.

==Alternative cultures of worship==

===The Bhakti schools===
The [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]] (Devotional) school is takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming love of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to tap into the universal divinity through personal form, which explains the proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people. Seen as a form of [[Yoga]], or union, it seeks to dissolve the ego in God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a divisive factor in spiritual realization. Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even transcended, through the love of God. The [[Bhakti]] movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of faith and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India. They can rightly be said to have affected the greatest wave of change in Hindu prayer and ritual since ancient times.

The most popular means of expressing love for God in the Hindu tradition has been through ''puja'', or ritual devotion, frequently using the aid of a ''[[#Forms of worship: icons and mantras|murti]]'' (statue) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of [[mantra]]s. Devotional songs called [[bhajan]]s (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), [[kirtan]] (praise), and [[arti]] (a filtered down form of Vedic fire ritual) are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of puja. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic medium. It is said, however, that the ''bhakta'', through a growing connection with God, is eventually able to eschew all external form and is immersed entirely in the bliss of undifferentiated Love in Truth.

Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the world and gave India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing unnecessary ritual and artificial social boundaries. See [[bhakti yoga]] for more.

===Tantrism===
According to the most famous Western Tantrik scholar, Sir John Woodroffe (pseudonym Arthur Avalon): "The Indian Tantras, which are numerous, constitute the Scripture (Shastra) of the Kaliyuga, and as such are the voluminous source of present and practical orthodox 'Hinduism'. The Tantra Shastra is, in fact, and whatever be its historical origin, a development of the Vaidika Karmakanda, promulgated to meet the needs of that age. Shiva says: 'For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given' (Chap. IX., verse 12). To the Tantra we must therefore look if we would understand aright both ritual, yoga, and sadhana of all kinds, as also the general principles of which these practices are but the objective expression." (Introduction to Sir John Woodroffe's translation of "Mahanirvana Tantra.")

The word "[[tantra]]" means "treatise" or "continuum", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as to those which we would now regard as "tantric". Most tantras were written in the late middle ages and sprang from Hindu cosmology and [[Yoga]]. See [[Tantra]] for more.

== Important symbolism and themes in Hinduism==

=== Ahimsa and the cow ===
A note of the element of ahimsa in Hinduism is vital to understanding the society that has arisen around some of its principles. While [[Jainism]] as it was practiced was certainly a major influence on Indian society, what with its exhortation of strict [[veganism]] and non-violence as ''ahimsa'', the term first appeared in the [[Upanishad]]s. Thus, an ingrained and externally motivated influence led to the development of a large section of Hindus who grew to embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life, restricting their diet to plants and vegetables. About 30% of today's [[Hindu]] population, especially in orthodox communities in [[South India]], in certain northerly states like Gujurat, and in many [[Brahmin]] enclaves around the subcontinent, is vegetarian. Thus, while vegetarianism is not dogma, it is recommended as a [[sattwa|sattwic]] (purifying) lifestyle.

Those [[Hindus]] who do eat meat predominantly abstain from [[beef]], some even going so far as to avoid leather products. This is most likely because the largely pastoral Vedic people and subsequent generations of Hindus throughout the centuries relied so heavily on the cow for all sorts of dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertiliser that its status as a willing 'caretaker' of humanity grew to identifying it as an almost maternal figure. Thus, while most Hindus do not worship the cow, and scriptural injunctions against eating beef arose long after the [[Veda]]s had been written, it still holds an honored place in Hindu society. It is said that [[Krishna]] is both Govinda (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and [[Shiva]]'s attendant is [[Nandi]], the bull. With the stress on vegetarianism (which is usually followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days or special occasions) and the sacred nature of the cow, it is no wonder that most holy cities and areas in India have a ban on selling meat-products and there is a movement among Hindus to ban cow-slaughter not only in specific regions, but in all of [[India]].

=== Forms of worship: murtis and mantras ===
[[Image:Rama in Ivory.jpg|thumb|175px|left|[[Murti|Murtis]] of Lord [[Rama]], [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]], who's story is told in the [[Ramayana]] adorn many Hindu homes and temples. ]]
Contrary to popular belief, practiced Hinduism is neither [[polytheism|polytheistic]] nor strictly [[monotheism|monotheistic]]. The various gods and avatars that are worshipped by Hindus are understood as different forms of One truth, sometimes seen as beyond a mere God and as a formless Divine Ground ([[Brahman]]), akin but not limited to [[monism]], or as one monotheistic principle like [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]].

Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people. Hinduism encourages devotees to describe and develop a personal relationship with their chosen deity (ishta devata) in the form of a God or Goddess.

While some censuses hold worshippers of one form or another of [[Vishnu]] (known as ''[[Vaishnav]]s'') to be at 80% and those of [[Shiva]] (called ''[[Shaivaites]]'') and [[Devi|Shakti]] at the remaining 20%, such figures are perhaps misleading. The vast majority of Hindus worship many gods as varicolored forms of the same prism of Truth. Among the most popular are [[Vishnu]] (as [[Krishna]] or [[Rama]]), [[Shiva]], [[Devi]] (the Mother as many female deities, such as [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Kali]] and [[Durga]]), [[Ganesha]], [[Skanda]] and [[Hanuman]].

Worship of the said deities is often done through the aid of pictures or icons (''murti'') which are said not to be God themselves but conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human soul that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the love and grandeur of [[God]]. They are symbols of the greater principle, representing and are never presumed to ''be'' the concept or entity itself. Thus, Hindu image worship is a form of [[icon|iconolatry]], in which the symbols are venerated as putative sigils of divinity, as opposed to [[idolatry]], a charge often levied (erroneously) at Hindus. For more details on this form of worship, see [[murti]].

===Mantra===
Reciting [[mantra]]s is a fundamental practice that both originated and now continues in Hinduism. Much of mantra yoga, as it is called, is done through japa (repetition). Mantras are said, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the [[sadhaka]] (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of [[Bhakti yoga]] akin to the understanding of the [[murti]]. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed, [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s dying words were a two-word [[mantra]] to the Lord [[Rama]]: ''"Hai Ram!"'' (pronounced ''Hey Ram'').

The most representative of all the Hindu mantras is the famed [[Gayatri Mantra]]:

:ॐ भूर्भुवस्व: | तत् सवितूर्वरेण्यम् | भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि | धियो यो न: प्रचोदयात्
:'' Aum bhūrbhuvasvaH'' | ''tat savitūrvareṇyam'' | ''bhargo devasya dhīmahi'' | ''dhiyo yo naH pracodayāt''

(/H/ stands for the voiceless aspirate called 'visarga'.)

A good explanation of this mantra can be found here:
[http://www.indiaoz.com.au/hinduism/prayer/gayatri_mantra.shtml]. It is considered one of the most universal of all Hindu mantras, and invokes the universal [[Brahman]] as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun, only in its feminine aspect. Many Hindus till today, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for at least 5,000 years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the [[Ganga]]/[[Ganges]]). Known as a universal mantra, it is revered as being the most condensed form of Divine Knowledge (Veda). Its presiding principle, Ma (Mother) Gayatri, is also known as [[Veda Mata]] (Mother of the Vedas) and is strongly associated with the Goddess of Learning and Illumination, [[Saraswati]].

The chief aim of the Vedic religion is to achieve [[moksha]], or liberation, through constant dedication to ''Satya'' (Truth) and eventual realization of the ''[[Atman]]'' (Universal Soul). Whether this is achieved through meditation or pure love, this universal goal is achievable by all. But it should be noted that Hinduism is a very practical faith, and is embodied in every aspect of life. It believes equally in the temporal as in the infinite, only it encourages perspective. The great [[rishi]]s (Hindu sages) have termed the samsaric (one who lives in samsara, i.e. the temporal or earthly plane) who succeeds in living an honest, loving and [[dharma|dharmic]] life a [[jivanmukta]] (living free soul). Hinduism's fundamental truth is best expressed in the [[Upanishad|Upanishadic]] dictum, ''Tat Twam Asi'' (Thou Art That), and the ultimate aspiration as follows:

:''Aum Asato ma sad gamaya, tamaso ma jyotir gamaya, mrityor ma aamritaam gamaya''
:"Aum Lead me from ignorance to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality."

For more details, see [[Mantra]].

== Hindu scriptures ==

Hindu [[scripture]] is overwhelmingly written in [[Sanskrit]]. Indeed, much of the [[morphology]] and [[linguistic]] philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is inextricably linked to study of the [[Veda]]s and relevant Hindu texts. Hindu texts are typically seen to revolve around many levels of reading, namely gross/physical, subtle and supramental. This allows for many levels of understanding as well, implying that the truth of the texts can only be realized with the spiritual advancement of the reader. It is divided into two categories: ''[[Shruti]]''- that which is heard (i.e. revelation) and ''[[Smriti]]''- that which is remembered (i.e. tradition, not revelation).

For a more thorough look at the important texts of Hinduism, see [[Hindu scripture]].

===Shruti===
The [[Veda]]s are considered scripture by all Hindus. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the [[Veda]]s, the reverence for the more abstract notion of eternal knowledge (''Veda'' means knowledge) is etched deep into the hearts of all those who follow Veda Dharma. Classed with the [[Veda]]s (which specifically refer to the [[Rig Veda|Rig/Rg]], [[Yajur Veda|Yajur]], [[Sama Veda|Sama]] and [[Atharva Veda]]s) are their famous commentaries, the [[Upanishad]]s. While the early Vedas lay the foundation for subsequent Hindu ritual, cosmology and developing philosophy, the [[Upanishads]] built the edifice of mystic insight and abhorrence for ritual at the expense of spiritual insight. Forming the core of the [[Vedanta]] (''End of Vedas''), they streamline the excessive litany of praise to [[Vedic]] gods and capture the essence of the Rig Vedic dictum "Truth Is One." They set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of a single transcendent and yet immanent force that is native to each man's soul, an identification of micro- and macrocosm as One. It can be said that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four [[Veda]]s, Classical Hinduism, from the [[Yoga]] and [[Vedanta]] to [[Tantra]] and [[Bhakti]] streams, was molded around the [[Upanishads]].

===Bhagavad Gita===
The [[Bhagavad Gita]] occupies a special position in the hearts of most Hindus as a keystone ''yoga upanishad'' whose eternal words perhaps are the most representative of all Hindu thought, each shloka 'directly' from the mouth of the Lord [[Krishna]]. While technically it is considered Smriti, it has singularly achieved nearly unquestioned status as Shruti, or revealed, and is thus the most definitive single Hindu text, read by millions of ''bhaktas'' (devotees) and ''yogis'' on a largely daily basis throughout the ''Sanatana Dharmic'' world. See [[Bhagavad Gita]] to explore this text.

===Smriti===
The post-Vedic Hindu scriptures form the latter category, the most notable of which are the ''[[Mahabharata]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]'', major [[epic]]s considered scripture by most followers of Sanatana Dharma, their stories arguably familiar to the vast majoriy of Hindus living in the [[Indian subcontinent]], if not abroad. Other texts considered important by today's Hindus include the [[Devi Mahatmya]], an ode to [[Devi]], the Divine Mother, and the [[Yoga Sutras]], a key meditative yoga text of Shri [[Patanjali]]. There are also a number of revered Hindu [[Tantras]] and [[List of sutras|Sutras]] that command the respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the [[Mahanirvana Tantra]], [[Tirumantiram]] and [[Shiva Sutras]].

== References==
# [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=402241 Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia]
# [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online]

== See also ==

===Important Hindu Scripture===
* [[Veda]]s
* [[Upanishad]]s
* [[Vedanta Sutra]]s
* [[Bhagavad Gita]]
* [[Mahabharata]]
* [[Ramayana]]
* [[Devi Mahatmya]]
* [[Yoga Sutra]]s

===Hindu terminology===
* [[Agnihotra]]
* [[Puja]]
* [[Rama-Lilas]]
* [[Rta]]

==External links==

* [http://www.arshavidya.org/ Arsha Vidya Gurukulam]
* [http://www.atributetohinduism.com/ ''A Tribute To Hinduism'']
* [http://www.afghanhindu.info/ www.afghanhindu.info]
* [http://www.caribbeanhindu.com/ www.caribbeanhindu.com]
* [http://www.encyclopediaofauthentichinduism.org/ ''Authentic Hinduism'' Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.chinfo.org/ Chinmaya International Foundation - ''The Maternal Ancestral Home of Shri AdhiSankaracharya and the Center for Advanced Sanskrit Research and Indology'']
* [http://www.chinmayamission.org/ Chinmaya Mission]
* [http://www.archaeolink.com/hindu_hinduism_general_resources.htm Collection of Scholarly and Academic links on Hinduism]
* [http://www.dharmacentral.com/ Dharma Central]
* [http://www.hindu.org/ Hindu.org]
* [http://www.hindubooks.org/ Hindubooks.org]
* [http://www.hindu-indonesia.com/ Hinduism in Indonesia]
* [http://www.hindukids.org/ Hindukids.org]
* [http://www.hindunet.org/ Hindunet.org]
* [http://www.hscnet.org/ Hindu Students Council (primarily in the Americas, but with international chapters)]
* [http://www.himalayanacademy.com/ himalayanacademy.com]
* [http://www.indology.net/ Indology.Net]
* [http://www.mandala.org/ Mandala Publishing: Award-winning Publisher of Hindu and Indian Spirituality-related books]
* [http://www.panchamukha.org/ Panchmukha.org (Five Faces)]
* [http://www.prapatti.com/ Prapatti: Vaishnava site with downloadable shlokas]
* [http://sanskrit.gde.to/ Sanskrit site with comprehensive library of texts]
* [http://www.saranam.com/ Saranam]
* [http://satsang.tripod.com/ Satsang: Hindu Bhajan - Text and Audio]
* [http://satsangh.tripod.com/ Satsangh: Hindu Puja - Text and Audio]
* [http://www.shivashakti.com/ ShivaShakti.com: Comprehensive Hindu Tantra site]
* [http://thetruehistoryandthereligionofindia.org/ ''True History & Religion of India'']
* [http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/ VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online]
* [http://www.vedah.com/org/index.asp Shri Aurobindo Kapali Sastri Institute of Vedic Culture]
* [http://www.vedanet.com/ Vedanet.com: American Institute of Vedic Studies]
* [http://www.vedanta.org/ Vedanta.org]
* [http://www.archive.org/movies/movieslisting-browse.php?collection=opensource_movies&cat=bharatanatyam Video of Hindu dance-worship in Bharatanatyam]

==References==

This text was edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism Hinduism]''. Retrieved Sept. 30, 2004.

Holy Guardian Angel

2004-09-30T10:18:03Z

Phos: format seems to be better now

{{stub}}

'''The Augoeides'''

Lytton calls him Adonai in ‘Zanoni,’ and I often use this name in the note-books.
Abramelin calls him Holy Guardian Angel. I adopt this:

1. Because Abramelin’s system is so simple and effective.

2. Because since all theories of the universe are absurd it is better to talk in the language of one which is patently absurd, so as to mortify the metaphysical man.

3. Because a child can understand it.

Theosophists call him the Higher Self, Silent Watcher, or Great Master.

The Golden Dawn calls him the Genius.

Gnostics say the Logos.

Egyptians say Asar Un-nefer.

Zoroaster talks about uniting all these symbols into the form of a
Lion – see Chaldean Oracles.

Anna Kingsford calls him Adonai (Clothed with the Sun). Buddhist call him Adi-Buddha – (says H.P.B.)

The Bhagavad-Gita calls him Vishnu (chapter xi.)

The Yi King calls him “The Great Person.”

The Qabalah calls him Jechidah.

We also get metaphysical analyses of His nature, deeper and deeper according to the subtlety of the writer; for this vision – it is all one same phenomena, variously coloured by our varying Ruachs – is, I believe, the first and the last of all Spiritual Experience. For though He is attributed to Malkuth, and the Door of the Path of His overshadowing, He is also in Kether (Kether is in Malkuth, and Malkuth in Kether – “as above, so beneath”), and the End of the “Path of the Wise” is identitiy with Him.

So that while he is the Holy Guardian Angel, He is also Hua, and the Tao.

For since Intra Nobis Regnum deI all things are in Ourself, and all Spiritual Experience is a more or less complete Revelation of Him.

Yet it is only in the Middle Pillar that His manifestation is in any way perfect.

The Augoeides invocation is the whole thing. Only it is so difficult; one goes along through all the fifty gates of Binah at once, more or less illuminated, more or less deluded. But the First and the Last is this Augoeides Invocation.

- Equinox I:1,pp 159 -160

Holy Guardian Angel

2004-09-30T09:55:29Z

Phos: having a difficult time getting this to format - excerpt from Equinox

{{stub}}

'''The Augoeides'''
<pre>
Lytton calls him Adonai in ‘Zanoni,’ and I often use this name in the note-books.
Abramelin calls him Holy Guardian Angel. I adopt this:

1. Because Abramelin’s system is so simple and effective.

2. Because since all theories of the universe are absurd it is better to talk in the language of one which is patently absurd, so as to mortify the metaphysical man.

3. Because a child can understand it.

Theosophists call him the Higher Self, Silent Watcher, or Great Master.

The Golden Dawn calls him the Genius.

Gnostics say the Logos.

Egyptians say Asar Un-nefer.

Zoroaster talks about uniting all these symbols into the form of a
Lion – see Chaldean Oracles.

Anna Kingsford calls him Adonai (Clothed with the Sun). Buddhist call him Adi-Buddha – (says H.P.B.)

The Bhagavad-Gita calls him Vishnu (chapter xi.)

The Yi King calls him “The Great Person.”

The Qabalah calls him Jechidah.

We also get metaphysical analyses of His nature, deeper and deeper according to the subtlety of the writer; for this vision – it is all one same phenomena, variously coloured by our varying Ruachs – is, I believe, the first and the last of all Spiritual Experience. For though He is attributed to Malkuth, and the Door of the Path of His overshadowing, He is also in Kether (Kether is in Malkuth, and Malkuth in Kether – “as above, so beneath”), and the End of the “Path of the Wise” is identitiy with Him.

So that while he is the Holy Guardian Angel, He is also Hua, and the Tao.

For since Intra Nobis Regnum deI all things are in Ourself, and all Spiritual Experience is a more or less complete Revelation of Him.

Yet it is only in the Middle Pillar that His manifestation is in any way perfect.

The Augoeides invocation is the whole thing. Only it is so difficult; one goes along through all the fifty gates of Binah at once, more or less illuminated, more or less deluded. But the First and the Last is this Augoeides Invocation.

- Equinox I:1,pp 159 -160</pre>

Talk:Freemasonry

2004-09-30T05:06:47Z

Phos:

I'd like to add some content about Masonic acceptance of Liber AL. In California in 1996 the Grand Master added AL to the list of accepted sacred texts for the Blue Lodge for candidates to be sworn in on. I was in discussions with the advisor to the Grand Secretary who actually wrote up the proposed legislation and had it presented to the then G.M. Unfortunately this was rescinded just this year by the current Grand Master, and AL is no longer included among the list. I have no idea what other jurisdictions have on the books for this.--[[User:Phos|phos]] 01:06, 30 Sep 2004 (EDT)

William Wynn Westcott

2004-09-30T04:54:24Z

Phos:

'''William Wynn Westcott''' (November 17, 1848 - July 30, 1925) was a British esotericist and ceremonial magician. He was born in Leamington, Warwickshire, England.

A doctor of medicine by trade, he became active in [[Freemasonry]] in 1871, becoming Master of his home Lodge in 1874 and later also of the prestigious [[''Quatuor Coronati'']] research lodge, as well as achieving other Masonic distinctions. He studied the [[Kabbalah]] and by 1880 became active in the ''[[Societas Rosicruciana]] in Anglia'' before co-founding the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] with [[Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers]] in 1888. By then he was also active in the [[Theosophical Society]]. He devised and organized the Golden Dawn's rituals with Mathers and [[W.R. Woodman]], who preceded him as ''Supreme Magus'' of the S.R.I.A. and like Westcott was one of the foremost exponents of [[Hermeticism]] of the time.

In 1896, he abandoned public involvement with the Golden Dawn due to pressure regarding his job as a Crown Coroner, with which it was seen as an unseemly association. He continued to head the S.R.I.A. and later was involved with the Golden Dawn breakaway [[Stella Matutina]]. He retired as a coroner after 1910, emigrated to South Africa in 1918, and died in Durban in 1925.

He was the author of many books on [[occult]] topics.

==References==

This text was slightly edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wynn_Westcott William Wynn Westcott]''. Retrieved Sept. 29, 2004.

Personalities in Thelema

2004-09-30T04:50:41Z

Phos: /* Notable members of the Golden Dawn */ - added W.W. Westcott tag

''This article needs your help. Please add important names found in Thelemic history...''

*'''[[The Gnostic Saints]]'''—listed in Liber XV, [[the Gnostic Mass]]
*'''[[Aleister Crowley]]''' (1875–1947) Prophet of [[Thelema]], Scribe of [[the Book of the Law]], OHO of [[Ordo Templi Orientis|O.T.O.]] from 1922 to 1947

==Past Masters of O.T.O.==
*'''[[Karl Germer]]''' (1885-1962) Fr. Saturnus, Outer Head of O.T.O. from 1947 until his death in 1962
*'''[[Charles Stansfeld Jones]]''' (1886-1950) Fr. Parzival X° for the United States, discovered the Key of the Law
*'''[[Carl Kellner]]''' (1851-1905) Fr. Renatus, spiritual founder of Ordo Templi Oriestis
*'''[[Grady McMurtry]]''' (1918-1985) Fr. Hymenaeus Alpha X°, OHO of Ordo Templi Orientis from 1965 to 1985
*'''[[Theodor Reuss]]''' (1855-1923) Fr. Merlin or Peregrinus, first OHO of Ordo Templi Orientis
*'''[[Wilfred Talbot Smith]]''' (1885-1957) Fr. Ramaka X°, first priest in a public Gnostic Mass

==Scarlet Women==
*'''[[Mary Butts]]''' (1892-1937) author, acquaintance of Aleister Crowley, resident at [[Cefalù]]
*'''[[Rose Edith Crowley]]''' (1874-1932) Rose Edith Kelly, first wife of Aleister Crowley, the first [[Babalon|Scarlet Woman]]
*'''[[Mary Desti]]''' (1878-1927) better known as Isadora Duncan, considered creater of modern dance, companion of Crowley
*'''[[Leah Hirsig]]''' (1883–1951) Sr. Alostrael, A Scarlet Woman, companion of Crowley, co-founder of Cefalù
*'''[[Regina Kahl]]''' (1891-1945) member of Agape Lodge #2 O.T.O., first priestess in a public Gnostic Mass
*'''[[Maria de Miramar]]''' (1894-196?) The second wife of Aleister Crowley
*'''[[Dorothy Olsen]]''' Sr. Astrid, a Scarlet Woman; student and companion of Crowley
*'''[[Phyllis Seckler]]''' (1917-2004) Sr. Meral IXº O.T.O., 5=6 A.'.A.'., founder College of Thelema.
*'''[[Leila Waddell]]''' (1880–1932) LAYLAH, companion of Crowley, inspiration for The Book of Lies, accomplished violinist
*'''[[Jane Wolfe]]''' (1875-1958) Sr. Estai, acquaintance of Aleister Crowley, resident at [[Cefalù]], actress in silent films

==Notable members of O.T.O.==
*'''[[Kenneth Anger]]''' experimental filmmaker, author of ''Hollywood Babylon''
*'''[[J.F.C. Fuller]]''' (1876-1966) British general, military historian, acquaintance of Aleister Crowley
*'''[[Franz Hartmann]]''' (1838 - 1912) Theosophical and Rosicrucian scholar, co-founder of Ordo Templi Orientis
*'''[[Heinrich Klein]]''' (?-1913) a co-founder of Ordo Templi Orientis
*'''[[Frederick Mellinger]]''' (1890-1970) Fr. Merlinus
*'''[[Hermann Metzger]]''' (1919-1990) Fr. Paragranus
*'''[[Jack Parsons]]''' (1914-1952) Fr. Belarion, co-founder of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), writer of [[The Babalon Working]], co-founder of Agape Lodge #2 O.T.O.

==Notable members of A.'.A.'.==
?

==Notable members of the Golden Dawn==
*'''[[Allan Bennett]]''' (1872-1923) member of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]], teacher of Aleister Crowley, founder of the Buddhist Society
*'''[[Dion Fortune]]''' (1891-1946) member of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]], esoteric author, founder of the ''Society of the Inner Light''
*'''[[George Cecil Jones]]''' member of the Golden Dawn and founder, with Aleister Crowley, of the A.'.A.'.
*'''[[Samuel Mathers]]''' (1854-1918) founder of the Golden Dawn, teacher and later enemy of Crowley
*'''[[Israel Regardie]]''' (1907-1985) member of the Golden Dawn, author, student of Crowley
*'''[[A.E. Waite]]''' (1857-1942) occultist, co-creator of the Rider-Waite Tarot deck, member of the Golden Dawn, founder of the Fellowship of the Rosy Cross
*'''[[William Butler Yeats]]''' (1865-1939) Poet, mystic, member of the Golden Dawn
*'''[[William Wynn Westcott]]'''(1848-1925) Co-founder of the Golden Dawn, Supreme Magus of S.R.I.A., Freemason, member Theosophical Society

==Personalities in Gnosticism==
*'''[[Jean Bricaud]]''' (1881-1934) A founder of the Gnostic Catholic Church
*'''[[Jules Doinel]]''' (1842-1903) founder of The Gnostic Church
*'''[[Gérard Encausse]]''' (1865-1916) A founder of the Gnostic Catholic Church

==Other occult personalities==
*'''[[Helena Blavatsky]]''' (1831-1891) Founder of the [[Theosophical Society]]
*'''[[John Dee]]''' (1527-1608) British mathematician, astronomer and consultant to Elizabeth I; discoverer of Enochian magick
*'''[[Anna Kingsford]]''' (1846-1888) author; founder and leader of the Hermetic Society
*'''[[Alphonse Louis Constant|Eliphas Levi]]''' (1810-1875) a highly influential magician of the 19th century, author of ''Transcendental Magic''.
*'''[[Victor Neuburg]]''' (1883-1940) Fr. Omnia Vincam, scribe of ''The Vision and the Voice'', companion of Crowley, Poet
*'''[[Paschal Beverly Randolph]]''' (1825-1875)Brotherhood of Eulis, Fratres Rosae Crucis, H.B. of L.
*'''[[Harry Smith]]''' (1923-1991) filmmaker, ethnomusicologist, folklorist, archivist, E.G.C. bishop
*'''[[ John Yarker]]''' (1833-1913) English Masonic scholar and organizer, issued charters used by [[Theodor Reuss]] to establish Masonic features of O.T.O.
*'''[[Gerald Yorke]]''' (1901-1983) preeminent archivist of Crowley materials

User talk:Fr. Zabed

2004-09-30T04:40:19Z

Phos:

93. Thanks for contributing so much. It's a great help. I have one suggestion...when we take articles from Wikipedia, we should try to take out a lot of the needless internal links. I know it's a pain in the ass...I do it, too (in MS Word, actually). But since this isn't an all-purpose encyclopedia, we don't need links to every possible topic. It will also avoid a ton of red links on a page, which looks bad. Eventually, we want nothing but blue! Anyway, thanks again! --[[User:Ash|Ash]] 23:45, 21 Sep 2004 (EDT)

-

93.

Good point bro ;)

You are doing a good job yourself :)

93 93/93.

Z.

--
Good points, although I don't think extra red links are a bad thing. The more information the better, it gives many avenues of adding content and the red links are an invitation for someone to eventually write some content. However, I'll defer to your lead since you are running the thing!--[[User:Phos|phos]] 00:40, 30 Sep 2004 (EDT)

User:Phos

2004-09-29T10:07:52Z

Phos:

I am Frater Κ.Φ., Secretary of [http://www.marin-oto.org Mons Abiegnus Oasis O.T.O.] in Northern California, and a novitiate Priest of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica (under the guidance of Helena). I am also an active Freemason, occultist, and eternal student of the Mysteries.

[mailto:suti@pair.com contact]
[http://www.livejournal.com/users/ph0s lj]

Freemasonry

2004-09-29T09:55:22Z

Phos: /* Freemasonry's "appendant bodies" */

{{thelema}}

'''Freemasonry''' is a worldwide fraternal organization. Its members are joined together by high ideals, of both a moral and metaphysical nature (and, in the majority of branches, by a common belief in a Supreme Being). Freemasonry is an "esoteric art," in that certain aspects of its internal work are not generally revealed to the public. Masons give numerous reasons for this, one of which is that Freemasonry uses an initiatory system of degrees to explore ethical and philosophical issues, and this system is less effective if the observer knows beforehand what will happen. It often calls itself "a peculiar system of morality veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols."

==Membership==

Freemasons are expected to exhibit the utmost tolerance both in "Lodge" (the meeting place of a group of Freemasons) and in their daily lives. Freemasonry will thus accept members from almost any religion, including all denominations of Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and so forth. Exactly how far this goes depends on the particular branch or "jurisdiction" of Freemasonry one is dealing with. Deists have traditionally been accepted. In Lodges derived from the Grand Orient of France and in certain other groups of Lodges, atheists and agnostics are also accepted, without qualification. Most other branches currently require a belief in a Supreme Being. But even there, one finds a high degree of non-dogmatism, and the phrase "Supreme Being" is often given a very broad interpretation, usually allowing Deism and often even allowing naturalistic views of "God/Nature" in the tradition of Baruch Spinoza and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (himself a Freemason), or non-theistic views of Ultimate Reality or Cosmic Oneness, such as found in some Eastern religions and in Western idealism (or for that matter, in modern cosmology). In some other (mostly English-speaking) jurisdictions, Freemasonry is not as tolerant of naturalism as it was in the 18th century, and specific religious requirements with more theistic and orthodox overtones have been added since the early 19th century, including (mostly in North America) belief in the immortality of the soul. The Freemasonry that predominates in Scandinavia, known as the Swedish Rite, accepts only Christians.

Generally, to be a Freemason, one must:

# be a man, if joining the majority of Masonic jurisdictions, or a woman, if joining a jurisdiction with women's Lodges (unless joining a co-Masonic jurisdiction with no gender requirement),
# believe in a "Supreme Being", or, in some jurisdictions, a "Creative Principle" (unless joining a jurisdiction with no religious requirement),
# be at least the minimum age (18-25 years depending on the jurisdiction),
# be of sound mind, body and of good morals, and
# be free (or "born free", ''i.e.'' not born a slave or bondsman).

Traditionally membership was limited to men only, and the inclusion of women is still a matter of controversy in many jurisdictions. The "free born" requirement does not come up in modern Lodges, and there is no indication that it would ever be enforced, but remains there for historical reasons. The "sound body" requirement is today generally taken to mean physically capable of taking part in Lodge rituals, and most Lodges today are quite flexible in accommodating disabled candidates.

Freemasonry upholds the principles of "Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth" (or in France: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"). It teaches moral lessons through rituals. Members working through the rituals are taught by "degrees". Freemasons are also commonly involved in public service and charity work, as well as providing a social outlet for their members. There is considerable variance in the emphasis on these different aspects of Masonry around the world. In Continental Europe, the philosophical side of Freemasonry is more emphasized, while in Britain, North America, and the English-speaking parts of the world, the charity, service and social club aspects are more emphasized.

While Freemasonry as an organization does not directly involve itself in politics, its members have tended over the years to support certain kinds of political causes with which they have become associated in the public eye: the separation of Church and State, the establishment of secular public schools, and democratic revolutions (in the American United States and French France on a smaller scale, but on a larger scale in other places such as Mexico, Brazil, and repeatedly in Italy).

Many organizations with various religious and political purposes have been inspired by Freemasonry, and are sometimes confused with it, such as the Protestant Loyal Orange Association and the 19th century Italian Carbonari, which pursued Liberalism and Italian Unity. Many other purely fraternal organizations, too numerous to mention, have also been inspired by Masonry to a greater or lesser extent.

Freemasonry is often called a "secret society", and in fact is considered by many to be the very prototype for such societies. Many Masons say that it is more accurately described as a "society with secrets". The degree of secrecy varies widely around the world. In English-speaking countries, most Masons are completely public with their affiliation, Masonic buildings are clearly marked, and meeting times are generally a matter of public record. In other countries, where Freemasonry has been more recently, or is even currently, suppressed by the government, secrecy may be practiced more in earnest (again, depending greatly on the particular country). Even in the English-speaking world, the precise details of the rituals are not made public, and Freemasons have a system of secret modes of recognition, such as the Masonic secret grip, by which Masons can recognize each other "in the dark as well as in the light," and which are universally kept strictly secret. (Although these "secrets" have been available in printed exposes and anti-Masonic literature for many years.)

==Criticism and repression==

Freemasonry has been a long-time favorite target of conspiracy conspiracy theorists, who see it as an occult and evil power, often associated with Judaism, and usually either bent on world domination, or already secretly in control of world politics.

Freemasonry is almost universally banned in totalitarian states. In 1925, it was outlawed in Fascist Italy. Allegedly in Nazi Germany, Freemasons were sent to concentration camps and all Masonic Lodges were ordered shut down. German Masons used the blue forget-me-not as a secret means of recognition and as a substitute for the traditional (and too-easily-recognized) square and compasses. According to some interpretations of canon law, Roman Catholics are forbidden to become Freemasons by their church, though Freemasons do not bar Roman Catholics from becoming members. Freemasonry is also discouraged by some religious denominations of Protestantism.

In modern democracies, Freemasonry is occasionally accused of being a sort of club, or network, where a lot of influence peddling, and perhaps illegal dealings, take place. In the early 1800s, William Morgan disappeared after threatening to expose Freemasonry's secrets, causing some to claim that he had been murdered by Masons. In Italy, in the 1970s, the P2 lodge was investigated in the wake of a financial scandal and a suspicious death. As a result, the lodge was expelled from Italian Masonry (although it continued to function independently). In Nice, France, the head prosecutor accused some judges and other judicial personnel of deliberately stalling or refusing to elucidate cases involving Masons. In the 1990s in Britain, the Labour Party government tried unsuccessfully to pass a law requiring all public officials who were Masons to make their affiliation public.

: ''See also: Anti-Masonry, United States Anti-Masonic Party.''

== Ritual and symbols ==

The Freemasons rely heavily on the architectural symbolism of the Medieval "operative" Masons who actually worked in Rock stone. One of their principal symbols is the "square and compasses", tools of the trade, so arranged as to form a quadrilateral. The square is sometimes said to represent matter, and the compasses spirit or mind. Alternatively, the square might be said to represent the world of the concrete, or the measure of objective reality, while the compasses represent abstraction, or subjective judgment, and so forth (Freemasonry being non-dogmatic, there is no written-in-stone interpretation for any of these symbols). The compasses straddle the square, representing the interdependence between the two. In the space between the two, there is optionally placed a symbol of metaphysical significance. Sometimes, this is a blazing star or other symbol of Light, representing Truth or knowledge. Alternatively, there is often a letter "G" placed there, usually said to represent "God and/or Geometry".

The square and compasses are displayed at all Masonic meetings, along with the open "Volume of the Sacred Law (or Lore)" (VSL). In English-speaking countries, this is usually a Bible, but it can be whatever book of inspiration or scripture that the members of a particular Lodge or jurisdiction feel they draw on--whether the Bible, the Koran, or other Volumes. In many French Lodges, the Masonic Constitutions are used. In a few cases, a blank book has been used, where the religious makeup of a Lodge was too diverse to permit an easy choice of VSL. In addition to its role as a symbol of written wisdom, inspiration, and sometimes as the revealed will of the Deity, the VSL is what Masonic obligations are taken upon.

Much of Masonic symbolism is mathematical in nature, and in particular geometrical, which is probably a reason Freemasonry has attracted so many rationalists (such as Voltaire, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Benjamin Franklin, Mark Twain and many others). No particular metaphysical theory is advanced by Freemasonry, however, although there seems to be some influence from the Pythagoreans, from Neo-Platonism, and from early modern Rationalism.

In keeping with the geometrical and architectural theme of Freemasonry, the Supreme Being (or God, or Creative Principle) is sometimes also referred to in Masonic ritual as "the Grand Geometrician", or the "Great Architect of the Universe". Freemasons use a variety of labels for this concept, often abbreviated "G.A.O.T.U.", in order to avoid the idea that they are talking about any one religion's particular God or God-like concept.

There are three initial "degrees" of Freemasonry: (1) Entered Apprentice, (2) Fellow Craft and (3) Master Mason. One works through each degree by taking part in a ritual, essentially a medieval mortality Play, in which one plays a role, along with members of the Lodge that one is joining. The setting is Biblical--the building of the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem--although the stories themselves are not directly from the Bible, and not intended to be necessarily Jewish or Christian in nature. Nothing supernatural happens in these stories. The Temple can be taken to represent the "temple" of the individual human being, that of the human community, or of the entire universe.

As one works through the degrees, one studies the lessons and interprets them for oneself. There are as many ways to interpret the rituals as there are Masons, and no Mason may dictate to any other Mason how he is to interpret them. No particular truths are espoused, but a common structure--speaking symbolically to universal human archetypes--provides for each Mason a means to come to his own answers to life's important questions. Freemasons working through the degrees are often (especially in Continental Europe) asked to prepare papers on related philosophical topics, and present lectures.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a Freemason, and his opera, The Magic Flute, makes extensive use of Masonic symbolism. Two books that give a general feel for the symbolism and its interpretation are:

# "Freemasonry: A Journey Through Ritual and Symbol" by W.K. MacNulty, Thames & Hudson, London, 1991.
# "Symbols of Freemasonry" by D. Beresniak and L. Hamani, Assouline, Paris, 2000.

===Lodges===
Contrary to popular belief, Freemasons meet ''as'' a ''Lodge'', and not ''in'' a lodge. (This is similar to the distinction made by Christians who meet ''as'' a ''church'', with the church ''building'' associated with the meeting of the faithful.)

The ''operative'' lodges constructed a lodge building adjacent to the work site where the masons could meet for instruction and social contact. Normally, this was on the southern side of the site (in Europe, the side with the sun warming the stones during the day.) The social part of the building was on the southern side, hence the social gathering of the lodge is still called ''the South''.

Early ''speculative'' lodges met in taverns and other convenient public meeting places, and employed a Tyler to guard the door from both malicious and simply curious people.

Lodge buildings have for many years been known as a ''temple''. In many countries this term has now been replaced by ''Masonic Centre''. (See also reference to the Shriners and their Temples. Until 2003-4, the Oscars were held at the Shriners temple/auditorium in Los Angeles.)

===Freemasonry in the language===
An expression often used in Masonic circles is "to be on the square", meaning to be a reliable sort of person, and this has entered common usage. Other phrases from Freemasonry in common use include "meeting on the level" (without regard to social, economic, religious or cultural differences). The practice of Freemasonry is referred to amongst its members as "The Craft".

== Organizational structure ==

There are a great many different "jurisdictions" of Freemasonry, each sovereign and independent of the others, and usually defined according to a geographic territory. There is thus no central Masonic authority, although each jurisdiction maintains a list of other jurisdictions that it formally "recognizes". If the other jurisdiction reciprocates the recognition, the two jurisdictions are said to be "in amity", which permits the members of the one jurisdiction to attend closed meetings of the other jurisdiction's Lodges, and vice-versa. Generally speaking, to be recognized by another jurisdiction, one must (at least) meet that jurisdiction's requirements for "regularity". This generally means that one must have in place, at least, the "ancient landmarks" of Freemasonry... the essential characteristics considered to be universal to Freemasonry in any culture. In keeping with the decentralized and non-dogmatic nature of Freemasonry, however, there is no universally accepted list of landmarks, and even jurisdictions in amity with each other often have completely different ideas as to what those landmarks are. Many jurisdictions take no official position at all as to what the landmarks are.

There is no tidy way to split jurisdictions into separate camps. For instance, jurisdiction A might recognize B, which recognizes C, which does not recognize A. In addition, the geographical territory of one jurisdiction may overlap with another's, which may affect their relations, for purely territorial reasons. In other cases, one jurisdiction may overlook irregularities in another due simply to a desire to maintain friendly relations. Also, a jurisdiction may be formally affiliated with one tradition, while maintaining informal ties with the other. For all these reasons, labels like "Anglo" and "Continental" must be taken only as rough indicators, not as any kind of clear designation.

The ruling authority of a Masonic jurisdiction is usually called a "Grand Lodge", or sometimes a "Grand Orient". These normally correspond to a single country, although their territory can be broader or narrower than that (in North America, each state and province has its own Grand Lodge). The oldest jurisdiction in the Anglo branch of Freemasonry is the [http://www.grand-lodge.org/ United Grand Lodge of England] (UGLE), founded in 1717. Its headquarters are at Freemasons Hall, Great Queen Street, London. The oldest in the Continental branch is the [http://www.godf.org/ Grand Orient de France] (GOdF), founded in 1728. At one time, these branches recognized each other, but most jurisdictions cut off formal relations with the GOdF sometime after it started accepting atheists in 1877. In most Latin countries, as well as in Belgium, the French style of Freemasonry predominates. The rest of the world, accounting for the bulk of Freemasonry, tends to follow the English lead.

===Freemasonry's "appendant bodies"===
Freemasonry is associated with several "appendant bodies", such as the Scottish Rite, the York Rite, the Swedish Rite, the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine (Shriners), the Mystic Order of Veiled Prophets of the Enchanted Realm (Grotto), the Tall Cedars of Lebanon, and the [http://mill-valley.freemasonry.biz/gordian-knot-order.htm Ancient and Heroic Order of the Gordian Knot], among numerous others, all of which tend to expand on the teachings of Freemasonry--often with additional higher degrees--while improving their members and society as a whole. Different jurisdictions vary in how they define their relationship with such bodies. Some of these organizations may have additional religious requirements, compared to Freemasonry proper (or "BCraft Masonry"), since they elaborate on Masonic teachings from a particular perspective.

In addition to appendant bodies, Freemasonry has relations with several organizations that, while not explicitly Masonic, do have Masonic membership as a prerequisite for membership. Eminent among these is the invitational Masonic research group, Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (S.R.I.A. or Soc. Ros.), the Masonic Rosicrucian society, which has branches throughout the world. A past Supreme Magus of the Soc. Ros. was William Wynn Westcott, one of the founders of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn. The S.R.I.A. is known in America as the Societas Rosicruciana in Civitatibus Foederatis (S.R.I.C.F.), the "Rosicrucian Society of the United States".

There are also certain youth organizations (mainly North American) which are associated with Freemasonry, but are not necessarily Masonic in their content, such as the Order of DeMolay (for boys aged 12-21), the Job's Daughters and the International Order of the Rainbow for Girls (for girls 11-20).

====Scottish Rite of Freemasonry====
The following is the structure of Freemasonic degrees for the Scottish Rite:

 Note. group titles apply to degrees ''above''.
:33° Inspector General
*'''Supreme Council'''
:32° Master of the Royal Secret
:31° Inspector Inquisitor
*'''Consistory'''
:30° Knight Kadosh
:29° Scottish Knight of Saint Andrew
:28° Knight of the Sun (Prince Adept)
:27° Knight Commander of the Temple
:26° Prince of Mercy
:25° Knight of the Brazen Serpent
:24° Prince of the Tabernacle
:23° Chief of the Tabernacle
:22° Knight of the Royal Axe (Prince of Libanus)
:21° Noachite, or Prussian Knight
:20° Master of the Symbolic Lodge
:19° Grand Pontiff
*'''Council of Kadosh'''
:18° Knight of the Rose Croix
:17° Knight of the East and West
:16° Prince of Jerusalem
:15° Knight of the East, of the Sword or the Eagle
*'''Rose Croix'''
:14° Perfect Elu (Grand Elect, Perfect and Sublime Mason)
:13° Royal Arch of Solomon (Knight of the Ninth Arch)
:12° Grand Master Architect
:11° Elu of the Twelve
:10° Elu of the Fifteen
:9° Elu of the Nine
:8° Intendant of the Building
:7° Provost and Judge
:6° Intimate Secretary
:5° Perfect Master
:4° Secret Master
*'''Lodge of Perfection'''
:3° Master Mason
:2° FellowCraft
:1° Entered Apprentice
*'''Blue Lodge or Craft Lodge'''

== History of Freemasonry==

''Main article: History of Freemasonry''

Freemasonry has been said to be an institutional outgrowth of the medieval guilds of stonemasons (1), a direct descendant of the "Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem" (the Knights Templar)(2), an offshoot of the ancient Mystery schools(1), an administrative arm of the Priory of Sion(3), the Roman Collegia(1), the Comacine masters(1), intellectual descendants of Noah(1), and to have many other various and sundry origins. Others will claim that it dates back only to the late 17th century, and has no real connections at all to earlier organizations. These theories are noted in numerous different texts, and the following are but examples pulled from a sea of books:

# In "A History of Freemasonry" by H.L. Haywood and James E. Craig, pub. ''circa'' 1927
# In "The Holy Blood and The Holy Grail" by Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln, pub. 1982
# In "Born in Blood" By John Robinson, pub. 1989

Much of this is highly speculative, and the precise origins of Freemasonry may be lost in history. It is likely that Freemasonry is not a straightforward outgrowth of medieval guilds of stonemasons, for numerous reasons well documented in "Born in Blood" by John Robinson. Amongst the reasons for this conclusion are the fact that Stonemason's guilds do not appear to predate reasonable estimates for the time of Freemasonry's origin, that stonemasons lived near their worksite and thus had no need for secret signs to identify themselves, and that the "Ancient Charges" of Freemasonry are nonsensical when thought of as being rules for a Stonemason's guild.

Freemasonry is said by some, especially amongst Masons practising the York Rite, to have existed even at the time of King Athelstan of England, in the 10th century C.E. Athelstan is said by some to have been converted to Christianity in York, and to have issued the first Charter to the Masonic Lodges there. This story is not currently substantiated (the dynasty had already been Christian for centuries).

Some critics and members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) consider the ordinances performed in LDS temples (believed by adherents to be revelation from God to Joseph Smith) similar to elements in the masonic rituals. Mormon apologists say this similarity may be because the Masonic rituals are descended from those given by God at the Temple of Solomon, and still contain many of the original truths.

A more historically reliable (although still not unassailable) source asserting the antiquity of Freemasonry is the Halliwell Manuscript or Regius Poem, which is believed to date from ''ca.'' 1390, and which makes reference to several concepts and phrases similar to those found in Freemasonry. The manuscript itself refers to an earlier document, of which it seems to be an elaboration.

It seems reasonable to suppose that, whatever its precise origins, Freemasonry provided a haven for the unorthodox and their sympathizers during a time when such activity could result in one's death, and that this has something to do with the tradition of secret meetings and handshakes. As the Middle Ages gave way to the Modern Age, the need for secrecy subsided, and Freemasons began to openly declare their association with the fraternity, which began to organize itself more formally. In 1717, four Lodges which met at the "Apple-Tree Tavern, the Crown Ale-House near Drury Lane, the Goose and Gridiron in St. Paul's Churchyard, and the Rummer and Grapes Tavern in Westminster" in London, England (as recounted in (2)) combined together and formed the first public Grand Lodge, the Premier Grand Lodge of England (PGLE). The years following saw Grand Lodges open throughout Europe, as the new Freemasonry spread rapidly. How much of this was the spreading of Freemasonry itself, and how much was the public organization of pre-existing secret lodges, is not possible to say with certainty. The PGLE in the beginning did not have the current three degrees, but only the first two. The third degree appeared, so far as we know, around 1725.

Opinions about the origins, objectives and future of Freemasonry remain controversial from the times of its inception to our times. For example, Shoko Asahara, founder of the controversial Japanese religious group Aum Shinrikyo, has prophesized in some of his sermons that "in the future, Freemasonry will merge into united stream" with Aum Shinrikyo.

According to Sir Richard Burton, "Sufi-ism [was] the Eastern parent of Freemasonry." (See, F. Hitchman, ''Burton,'' Volume 1, p. 286) The possibility that Burton was correct is examined in detail by Idries Shah in his book entitled ''The Sufis'', beginning on page 205.

== Women in Freemasonry ==

The position of women within Freemasonry is complex. Traditionally, only men could be made Freemasons. This has been changing in the last hundred years, but more quickly in some jurisdictions than others. In Britain and France, and most other countries, women generally join "co-Masonic" Lodges, such as those under the international jurisdiction Le Droit Humain (LDH), which admit both men and women, or they join Lodges under local jurisdictions that admit only women. In North America, it is more common for women not to become Freemasons ''per se'', but to join an associated body with its own, separate traditions, the Order of the Eastern Star (OES), which admits only male Freemasons and their female relatives. In the Netherlands, there is a completely separate, although allied, sorority for women, the Order of Weavers (OOW), which uses symbols from weaving rather than stonemasonry.

The GOdF and other Continental jurisdictions give full formal recognition to co-Freemasonry and women's Freemasonry. The UGLE and other Anglo jurisdictions do not formally recognize any Masonic body that accepts women, although in many countries they have an understanding and a kind of informal acceptance that such bodies are part of Freemasonry in a larger sense. The UGLE, for instance, has "recognized" (since 1998) two local women's jurisdictions as regular in practice, ''except'' for their inclusion of women, and has indicated that, while not formally recognized, these bodies may be regarded as part of Freemasonry. Thus, the position of women in Freemasonry is rapidly changing in the English-speaking world. While in many cases, North America is following England's lead on the issue of women, the remaining resistance to women in Freemasonry is mostly concentrated there.

== Prince Hall Masonry ==

In 1775, an African American named Prince Hall was initiated into an Irish Constitution Military Lodge, along with fourteen other African Americans, all of whom were free by birth. When the Military Lodge left the area, the African Americans were given the authority to meet as a Lodge, form Processions on the days of the Saints John, and conduct Masonic funerals, but not to confer degrees nor to do other Masonic Work. These individuals applied for, and obtained, a Warrant for Charter from the Grand Lodge of England in 1784 and formed African Lodge #459. Despite being stricken from the rolls for non-payment of dues after 1813, the Lodge restyled itself as the African Grand Lodge #1 (not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges on the Continent of Africa) and separated from UGLE-recognised Masonry. This led to a tradition of separate, predominantly African American jurisdictions in North America, known collectively as "Prince Hall Freemasonry", which flourished due to widespread racism in North America, which prevented African Americans from joining many mainstream lodges (for instance, the traditional "born free" entrance requirement may have been used in some lodges to exclude Americans of African descent). Presently, Prince Hall Masonry is recognised by some UGLE-recognized Grand Lodges and not by others, and appears to be working its way toward full recognition (see [http://www.mindspring.com/~johnsonx/whoisph.htm]).

John Marrant the Selina, Countess of Huntingdonian minister preached to the Prince Hall Lodge on 24th June 1789. His Nova Scotia congregation was significant in the successful agitation for repatriation by Black Loyalists as well as the subsequent revolt which occurred in Sierra Leone in 1800.

== The two great schisms of Freemasonry (1753 and 1877) ==

The PGLE (Premier Grand Lodge of England), along with those jurisdictions with which it was in amity, later came to be known colloquially as the "Moderns", to distinguish them from a newer, rival group of Freemasonry, known as the "Antients." The Antients broke away and formed their own Grand Lodge in 1753, prompted by the PGLE's making changes to the secret modes of recognition. Tensions between the two groups were very high at times. Benjamin Franklin was a "Modern" and a deist, for instance, but by the time he died, his Lodge had gone "Antient", and would no longer recognize him as one of their own, declining even to give him a Masonic funeral (see "Revolutionary Brotherhood", by Steven C. Bullock, Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1996).

The schism was healed in the years following 1813, when the competing Grand Lodges were amalgamated, by virtue of a delicately worded compromise which left English Masonry clearly not Christian, returned the modes of recognition to their pre-1753 form, kept Freemasonry ''per se'' as consisting of three degrees only, but which was ambiguously worded so as to allow the Moderns to think of the Antient Royal Arch degree as an optional higher degree, while still allowing the Antients to view it as the completion of the third degree (see [http://freemasonry.org/psoc/pragmatic.htm]).

Because both the Antients and the Moderns had "daughter" Lodges throughout the world, and because many of those Lodges still exist, there is a great deal of variability in the Ritual used today, even between UGLE-recognized jurisdictions. Most Lodges conduct their Work in accordance with an agreed-upon single "Rite," such as the "York Rite" (which is popular in the United States), or the "Canadian Rite" (which is, in some ways, a concordance between the Rites used by the "Antients" and "Moderns").

The second great schism in Freemasonry occurred in the years following 1877, when the GOdF started accepting atheists unreservedly. While the issue of atheism is probably the greatest single factor in the split with the GOdF, the English also point to the French recognition of women's Masonry and co-Masonry, as well as the tendency of French Masons to be more willing to discuss religion and politics in Lodge. While the French curtail such discussion, they do not ban it as outright as do the English (see [http://bessel.org/masrec/france.htm]). The schism between the two branches has occasionally been breached for short periods of time, especially during the First World War when American Masons overseas wanted to be able to visit French Lodges (see [http://www.bessel.org/recfranc.htm]).

Concerning religious requirements, the oldest constitution of Freemasonry (that of Anderson, 1723) says only that a Mason "will never be a stupid Atheist nor an irreligious Libertine" if he "rightly understands the Art". The only religion required was "that Religion in which all Men agree, leaving their particular Opinions to themselves" ([http://www.2be1ask1.com/library/anderson.html]). Masons disagree as to whether "stupid" and "irreligious" are meant as necessary or as accidental modifiers of "atheist" and "libertine". It is possible the ambiguity is intentional. In 1815, the newly amalgamated UGLE changed Anderson's constitutions to include more orthodox overtones: "Let a man's religion or mode of worship be what it may, he is not excluded from the Order, provided he believes in the glorious Architect of heaven and earth, and practices the sacred duties of morality." The English enforce this with a requirement for belief in a Supreme Being, and in his revealed will. While these requirements can still be interpreted in a non-theistic manner, they made it more difficult for unorthodox believers to enter the fraternity.

In 1849, the GOdF followed the English lead by adopting the "Supreme Being" requirement, but there was increasing pressure in Latin countries to openly admit atheists. There was an attempt at a compromise in 1875, by allowing the alternative phrase "Creative Principle" (which was less theistic-sounding than "Supreme Being"), but this was ultimately not enough for the GOdF, and in 1877 they went back to having no religious entrance requirements, adopting the original Anderson document of 1723 as their official Constitutions. They also created a modified ritual that made no direct verbal reference to the G.A.O.T.U. (although, as a symbol, it was arguably still present). This new Rite did not replace the older ones, but was added as an alternative (European jurisdictions in general tend not to restrict themselves to a single Rite, like most North American jurisdictions, but offer a menu of Rites, from which their Lodges can choose.)

==Cultural references==
* The Freemasons are spoofed in a Simpsons sketch as ''The Stonecutters'', a secret organization that controls everything from NASA to the Academy Awards.

==External links==
*[http://www.grand-lodge.org/ United Grand Lodge of England] (UGLE)
*[http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/ PS Review of Freemasonry]
*[http://www.godf.org/ Grand Orient de France] (GOdF)
*[http://www.masonicinfo.com/famous.htm Famous Freemasons]
*[http://www.internetloge.de/hotlinks/hyplink.htm Masonic Link Collection]
*[http://internetloge.de/masmon/masmon.htm WEBB'S FREEMASON'S MONITOR - including the first three degrees]
*[http://internetloge.de/masmanu/masmanu.htm Robert Macoy: THE MASONIC MANUAL - A pocket Companion for the Initiated]
*[http://internetloge.de/massym/massym.htm Albert G. Mackey, M. D.: SYMBOLISM OF FREEMASONRY]
*[http://www.internetloge.de/kunst/kunstabe.htm Masonic Art]

==References==

Large portions of this text was originally taken from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemasonry Freemasonry]''. Retrieved Sept. 21, 2004.

Freemasonry

2004-09-29T09:54:24Z

Phos: /* Freemasonry's "appendant bodies" */ - added brief info on S.R.I.A.

{{thelema}}

'''Freemasonry''' is a worldwide fraternal organization. Its members are joined together by high ideals, of both a moral and metaphysical nature (and, in the majority of branches, by a common belief in a Supreme Being). Freemasonry is an "esoteric art," in that certain aspects of its internal work are not generally revealed to the public. Masons give numerous reasons for this, one of which is that Freemasonry uses an initiatory system of degrees to explore ethical and philosophical issues, and this system is less effective if the observer knows beforehand what will happen. It often calls itself "a peculiar system of morality veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbols."

==Membership==

Freemasons are expected to exhibit the utmost tolerance both in "Lodge" (the meeting place of a group of Freemasons) and in their daily lives. Freemasonry will thus accept members from almost any religion, including all denominations of Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and so forth. Exactly how far this goes depends on the particular branch or "jurisdiction" of Freemasonry one is dealing with. Deists have traditionally been accepted. In Lodges derived from the Grand Orient of France and in certain other groups of Lodges, atheists and agnostics are also accepted, without qualification. Most other branches currently require a belief in a Supreme Being. But even there, one finds a high degree of non-dogmatism, and the phrase "Supreme Being" is often given a very broad interpretation, usually allowing Deism and often even allowing naturalistic views of "God/Nature" in the tradition of Baruch Spinoza and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (himself a Freemason), or non-theistic views of Ultimate Reality or Cosmic Oneness, such as found in some Eastern religions and in Western idealism (or for that matter, in modern cosmology). In some other (mostly English-speaking) jurisdictions, Freemasonry is not as tolerant of naturalism as it was in the 18th century, and specific religious requirements with more theistic and orthodox overtones have been added since the early 19th century, including (mostly in North America) belief in the immortality of the soul. The Freemasonry that predominates in Scandinavia, known as the Swedish Rite, accepts only Christians.

Generally, to be a Freemason, one must:

# be a man, if joining the majority of Masonic jurisdictions, or a woman, if joining a jurisdiction with women's Lodges (unless joining a co-Masonic jurisdiction with no gender requirement),
# believe in a "Supreme Being", or, in some jurisdictions, a "Creative Principle" (unless joining a jurisdiction with no religious requirement),
# be at least the minimum age (18-25 years depending on the jurisdiction),
# be of sound mind, body and of good morals, and
# be free (or "born free", ''i.e.'' not born a slave or bondsman).

Traditionally membership was limited to men only, and the inclusion of women is still a matter of controversy in many jurisdictions. The "free born" requirement does not come up in modern Lodges, and there is no indication that it would ever be enforced, but remains there for historical reasons. The "sound body" requirement is today generally taken to mean physically capable of taking part in Lodge rituals, and most Lodges today are quite flexible in accommodating disabled candidates.

Freemasonry upholds the principles of "Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth" (or in France: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"). It teaches moral lessons through rituals. Members working through the rituals are taught by "degrees". Freemasons are also commonly involved in public service and charity work, as well as providing a social outlet for their members. There is considerable variance in the emphasis on these different aspects of Masonry around the world. In Continental Europe, the philosophical side of Freemasonry is more emphasized, while in Britain, North America, and the English-speaking parts of the world, the charity, service and social club aspects are more emphasized.

While Freemasonry as an organization does not directly involve itself in politics, its members have tended over the years to support certain kinds of political causes with which they have become associated in the public eye: the separation of Church and State, the establishment of secular public schools, and democratic revolutions (in the American United States and French France on a smaller scale, but on a larger scale in other places such as Mexico, Brazil, and repeatedly in Italy).

Many organizations with various religious and political purposes have been inspired by Freemasonry, and are sometimes confused with it, such as the Protestant Loyal Orange Association and the 19th century Italian Carbonari, which pursued Liberalism and Italian Unity. Many other purely fraternal organizations, too numerous to mention, have also been inspired by Masonry to a greater or lesser extent.

Freemasonry is often called a "secret society", and in fact is considered by many to be the very prototype for such societies. Many Masons say that it is more accurately described as a "society with secrets". The degree of secrecy varies widely around the world. In English-speaking countries, most Masons are completely public with their affiliation, Masonic buildings are clearly marked, and meeting times are generally a matter of public record. In other countries, where Freemasonry has been more recently, or is even currently, suppressed by the government, secrecy may be practiced more in earnest (again, depending greatly on the particular country). Even in the English-speaking world, the precise details of the rituals are not made public, and Freemasons have a system of secret modes of recognition, such as the Masonic secret grip, by which Masons can recognize each other "in the dark as well as in the light," and which are universally kept strictly secret. (Although these "secrets" have been available in printed exposes and anti-Masonic literature for many years.)

==Criticism and repression==

Freemasonry has been a long-time favorite target of conspiracy conspiracy theorists, who see it as an occult and evil power, often associated with Judaism, and usually either bent on world domination, or already secretly in control of world politics.

Freemasonry is almost universally banned in totalitarian states. In 1925, it was outlawed in Fascist Italy. Allegedly in Nazi Germany, Freemasons were sent to concentration camps and all Masonic Lodges were ordered shut down. German Masons used the blue forget-me-not as a secret means of recognition and as a substitute for the traditional (and too-easily-recognized) square and compasses. According to some interpretations of canon law, Roman Catholics are forbidden to become Freemasons by their church, though Freemasons do not bar Roman Catholics from becoming members. Freemasonry is also discouraged by some religious denominations of Protestantism.

In modern democracies, Freemasonry is occasionally accused of being a sort of club, or network, where a lot of influence peddling, and perhaps illegal dealings, take place. In the early 1800s, William Morgan disappeared after threatening to expose Freemasonry's secrets, causing some to claim that he had been murdered by Masons. In Italy, in the 1970s, the P2 lodge was investigated in the wake of a financial scandal and a suspicious death. As a result, the lodge was expelled from Italian Masonry (although it continued to function independently). In Nice, France, the head prosecutor accused some judges and other judicial personnel of deliberately stalling or refusing to elucidate cases involving Masons. In the 1990s in Britain, the Labour Party government tried unsuccessfully to pass a law requiring all public officials who were Masons to make their affiliation public.

: ''See also: Anti-Masonry, United States Anti-Masonic Party.''

== Ritual and symbols ==

The Freemasons rely heavily on the architectural symbolism of the Medieval "operative" Masons who actually worked in Rock stone. One of their principal symbols is the "square and compasses", tools of the trade, so arranged as to form a quadrilateral. The square is sometimes said to represent matter, and the compasses spirit or mind. Alternatively, the square might be said to represent the world of the concrete, or the measure of objective reality, while the compasses represent abstraction, or subjective judgment, and so forth (Freemasonry being non-dogmatic, there is no written-in-stone interpretation for any of these symbols). The compasses straddle the square, representing the interdependence between the two. In the space between the two, there is optionally placed a symbol of metaphysical significance. Sometimes, this is a blazing star or other symbol of Light, representing Truth or knowledge. Alternatively, there is often a letter "G" placed there, usually said to represent "God and/or Geometry".

The square and compasses are displayed at all Masonic meetings, along with the open "Volume of the Sacred Law (or Lore)" (VSL). In English-speaking countries, this is usually a Bible, but it can be whatever book of inspiration or scripture that the members of a particular Lodge or jurisdiction feel they draw on--whether the Bible, the Koran, or other Volumes. In many French Lodges, the Masonic Constitutions are used. In a few cases, a blank book has been used, where the religious makeup of a Lodge was too diverse to permit an easy choice of VSL. In addition to its role as a symbol of written wisdom, inspiration, and sometimes as the revealed will of the Deity, the VSL is what Masonic obligations are taken upon.

Much of Masonic symbolism is mathematical in nature, and in particular geometrical, which is probably a reason Freemasonry has attracted so many rationalists (such as Voltaire, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Benjamin Franklin, Mark Twain and many others). No particular metaphysical theory is advanced by Freemasonry, however, although there seems to be some influence from the Pythagoreans, from Neo-Platonism, and from early modern Rationalism.

In keeping with the geometrical and architectural theme of Freemasonry, the Supreme Being (or God, or Creative Principle) is sometimes also referred to in Masonic ritual as "the Grand Geometrician", or the "Great Architect of the Universe". Freemasons use a variety of labels for this concept, often abbreviated "G.A.O.T.U.", in order to avoid the idea that they are talking about any one religion's particular God or God-like concept.

There are three initial "degrees" of Freemasonry: (1) Entered Apprentice, (2) Fellow Craft and (3) Master Mason. One works through each degree by taking part in a ritual, essentially a medieval mortality Play, in which one plays a role, along with members of the Lodge that one is joining. The setting is Biblical--the building of the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem--although the stories themselves are not directly from the Bible, and not intended to be necessarily Jewish or Christian in nature. Nothing supernatural happens in these stories. The Temple can be taken to represent the "temple" of the individual human being, that of the human community, or of the entire universe.

As one works through the degrees, one studies the lessons and interprets them for oneself. There are as many ways to interpret the rituals as there are Masons, and no Mason may dictate to any other Mason how he is to interpret them. No particular truths are espoused, but a common structure--speaking symbolically to universal human archetypes--provides for each Mason a means to come to his own answers to life's important questions. Freemasons working through the degrees are often (especially in Continental Europe) asked to prepare papers on related philosophical topics, and present lectures.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was a Freemason, and his opera, The Magic Flute, makes extensive use of Masonic symbolism. Two books that give a general feel for the symbolism and its interpretation are:

# "Freemasonry: A Journey Through Ritual and Symbol" by W.K. MacNulty, Thames & Hudson, London, 1991.
# "Symbols of Freemasonry" by D. Beresniak and L. Hamani, Assouline, Paris, 2000.

===Lodges===
Contrary to popular belief, Freemasons meet ''as'' a ''Lodge'', and not ''in'' a lodge. (This is similar to the distinction made by Christians who meet ''as'' a ''church'', with the church ''building'' associated with the meeting of the faithful.)

The ''operative'' lodges constructed a lodge building adjacent to the work site where the masons could meet for instruction and social contact. Normally, this was on the southern side of the site (in Europe, the side with the sun warming the stones during the day.) The social part of the building was on the southern side, hence the social gathering of the lodge is still called ''the South''.

Early ''speculative'' lodges met in taverns and other convenient public meeting places, and employed a Tyler to guard the door from both malicious and simply curious people.

Lodge buildings have for many years been known as a ''temple''. In many countries this term has now been replaced by ''Masonic Centre''. (See also reference to the Shriners and their Temples. Until 2003-4, the Oscars were held at the Shriners temple/auditorium in Los Angeles.)

===Freemasonry in the language===
An expression often used in Masonic circles is "to be on the square", meaning to be a reliable sort of person, and this has entered common usage. Other phrases from Freemasonry in common use include "meeting on the level" (without regard to social, economic, religious or cultural differences). The practice of Freemasonry is referred to amongst its members as "The Craft".

== Organizational structure ==

There are a great many different "jurisdictions" of Freemasonry, each sovereign and independent of the others, and usually defined according to a geographic territory. There is thus no central Masonic authority, although each jurisdiction maintains a list of other jurisdictions that it formally "recognizes". If the other jurisdiction reciprocates the recognition, the two jurisdictions are said to be "in amity", which permits the members of the one jurisdiction to attend closed meetings of the other jurisdiction's Lodges, and vice-versa. Generally speaking, to be recognized by another jurisdiction, one must (at least) meet that jurisdiction's requirements for "regularity". This generally means that one must have in place, at least, the "ancient landmarks" of Freemasonry... the essential characteristics considered to be universal to Freemasonry in any culture. In keeping with the decentralized and non-dogmatic nature of Freemasonry, however, there is no universally accepted list of landmarks, and even jurisdictions in amity with each other often have completely different ideas as to what those landmarks are. Many jurisdictions take no official position at all as to what the landmarks are.

There is no tidy way to split jurisdictions into separate camps. For instance, jurisdiction A might recognize B, which recognizes C, which does not recognize A. In addition, the geographical territory of one jurisdiction may overlap with another's, which may affect their relations, for purely territorial reasons. In other cases, one jurisdiction may overlook irregularities in another due simply to a desire to maintain friendly relations. Also, a jurisdiction may be formally affiliated with one tradition, while maintaining informal ties with the other. For all these reasons, labels like "Anglo" and "Continental" must be taken only as rough indicators, not as any kind of clear designation.

The ruling authority of a Masonic jurisdiction is usually called a "Grand Lodge", or sometimes a "Grand Orient". These normally correspond to a single country, although their territory can be broader or narrower than that (in North America, each state and province has its own Grand Lodge). The oldest jurisdiction in the Anglo branch of Freemasonry is the [http://www.grand-lodge.org/ United Grand Lodge of England] (UGLE), founded in 1717. Its headquarters are at Freemasons Hall, Great Queen Street, London. The oldest in the Continental branch is the [http://www.godf.org/ Grand Orient de France] (GOdF), founded in 1728. At one time, these branches recognized each other, but most jurisdictions cut off formal relations with the GOdF sometime after it started accepting atheists in 1877. In most Latin countries, as well as in Belgium, the French style of Freemasonry predominates. The rest of the world, accounting for the bulk of Freemasonry, tends to follow the English lead.

===Freemasonry's "appendant bodies"===
Freemasonry is associated with several "appendant bodies", such as the Scottish Rite, the York Rite, the Swedish Rite, the Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine (Shriners), the Mystic Order of Veiled Prophets of the Enchanted Realm (Grotto), the Tall Cedars of Lebanon, and the [http://mill-valley.freemasonry.biz/gordian-knot-order.htm Ancient and Heroic Order of the Gordian Knot], among numerous others, all of which tend to expand on the teachings of Freemasonry--often with additional higher degrees--while improving their members and society as a whole. Different jurisdictions vary in how they define their relationship with such bodies. Some of these organizations may have additional religious requirements, compared to Freemasonry proper (or "BCraft Masonry"), since they elaborate on Masonic teachings from a particular perspective.

In addition to appendant bodies, Freemasonry has relations with several organizations that, while not explicitly Masonic, do have Masonic membership as a prerequisite for membership. Eminent among these is the invitational Masonic research group, Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia (S.R.I.A. or Soc. Ros.), the Masonic Rosicrucian society, which has branches throughout the world. The S.R.I.A. is known in America as the Societas Rosicruciana in Civitatibus Foederatis (S.R.I.C.F.), the "Rosicrucian Society of the United States".

There are also certain youth organizations (mainly North American) which are associated with Freemasonry, but are not necessarily Masonic in their content, such as the Order of DeMolay (for boys aged 12-21), the Job's Daughters and the International Order of the Rainbow for Girls (for girls 11-20).

====Scottish Rite of Freemasonry====
The following is the structure of Freemasonic degrees for the Scottish Rite:

 Note. group titles apply to degrees ''above''.
:33° Inspector General
*'''Supreme Council'''
:32° Master of the Royal Secret
:31° Inspector Inquisitor
*'''Consistory'''
:30° Knight Kadosh
:29° Scottish Knight of Saint Andrew
:28° Knight of the Sun (Prince Adept)
:27° Knight Commander of the Temple
:26° Prince of Mercy
:25° Knight of the Brazen Serpent
:24° Prince of the Tabernacle
:23° Chief of the Tabernacle
:22° Knight of the Royal Axe (Prince of Libanus)
:21° Noachite, or Prussian Knight
:20° Master of the Symbolic Lodge
:19° Grand Pontiff
*'''Council of Kadosh'''
:18° Knight of the Rose Croix
:17° Knight of the East and West
:16° Prince of Jerusalem
:15° Knight of the East, of the Sword or the Eagle
*'''Rose Croix'''
:14° Perfect Elu (Grand Elect, Perfect and Sublime Mason)
:13° Royal Arch of Solomon (Knight of the Ninth Arch)
:12° Grand Master Architect
:11° Elu of the Twelve
:10° Elu of the Fifteen
:9° Elu of the Nine
:8° Intendant of the Building
:7° Provost and Judge
:6° Intimate Secretary
:5° Perfect Master
:4° Secret Master
*'''Lodge of Perfection'''
:3° Master Mason
:2° FellowCraft
:1° Entered Apprentice
*'''Blue Lodge or Craft Lodge'''

== History of Freemasonry==

''Main article: History of Freemasonry''

Freemasonry has been said to be an institutional outgrowth of the medieval guilds of stonemasons (1), a direct descendant of the "Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem" (the Knights Templar)(2), an offshoot of the ancient Mystery schools(1), an administrative arm of the Priory of Sion(3), the Roman Collegia(1), the Comacine masters(1), intellectual descendants of Noah(1), and to have many other various and sundry origins. Others will claim that it dates back only to the late 17th century, and has no real connections at all to earlier organizations. These theories are noted in numerous different texts, and the following are but examples pulled from a sea of books:

# In "A History of Freemasonry" by H.L. Haywood and James E. Craig, pub. ''circa'' 1927
# In "The Holy Blood and The Holy Grail" by Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, and Henry Lincoln, pub. 1982
# In "Born in Blood" By John Robinson, pub. 1989

Much of this is highly speculative, and the precise origins of Freemasonry may be lost in history. It is likely that Freemasonry is not a straightforward outgrowth of medieval guilds of stonemasons, for numerous reasons well documented in "Born in Blood" by John Robinson. Amongst the reasons for this conclusion are the fact that Stonemason's guilds do not appear to predate reasonable estimates for the time of Freemasonry's origin, that stonemasons lived near their worksite and thus had no need for secret signs to identify themselves, and that the "Ancient Charges" of Freemasonry are nonsensical when thought of as being rules for a Stonemason's guild.

Freemasonry is said by some, especially amongst Masons practising the York Rite, to have existed even at the time of King Athelstan of England, in the 10th century C.E. Athelstan is said by some to have been converted to Christianity in York, and to have issued the first Charter to the Masonic Lodges there. This story is not currently substantiated (the dynasty had already been Christian for centuries).

Some critics and members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) consider the ordinances performed in LDS temples (believed by adherents to be revelation from God to Joseph Smith) similar to elements in the masonic rituals. Mormon apologists say this similarity may be because the Masonic rituals are descended from those given by God at the Temple of Solomon, and still contain many of the original truths.

A more historically reliable (although still not unassailable) source asserting the antiquity of Freemasonry is the Halliwell Manuscript or Regius Poem, which is believed to date from ''ca.'' 1390, and which makes reference to several concepts and phrases similar to those found in Freemasonry. The manuscript itself refers to an earlier document, of which it seems to be an elaboration.

It seems reasonable to suppose that, whatever its precise origins, Freemasonry provided a haven for the unorthodox and their sympathizers during a time when such activity could result in one's death, and that this has something to do with the tradition of secret meetings and handshakes. As the Middle Ages gave way to the Modern Age, the need for secrecy subsided, and Freemasons began to openly declare their association with the fraternity, which began to organize itself more formally. In 1717, four Lodges which met at the "Apple-Tree Tavern, the Crown Ale-House near Drury Lane, the Goose and Gridiron in St. Paul's Churchyard, and the Rummer and Grapes Tavern in Westminster" in London, England (as recounted in (2)) combined together and formed the first public Grand Lodge, the Premier Grand Lodge of England (PGLE). The years following saw Grand Lodges open throughout Europe, as the new Freemasonry spread rapidly. How much of this was the spreading of Freemasonry itself, and how much was the public organization of pre-existing secret lodges, is not possible to say with certainty. The PGLE in the beginning did not have the current three degrees, but only the first two. The third degree appeared, so far as we know, around 1725.

Opinions about the origins, objectives and future of Freemasonry remain controversial from the times of its inception to our times. For example, Shoko Asahara, founder of the controversial Japanese religious group Aum Shinrikyo, has prophesized in some of his sermons that "in the future, Freemasonry will merge into united stream" with Aum Shinrikyo.

According to Sir Richard Burton, "Sufi-ism [was] the Eastern parent of Freemasonry." (See, F. Hitchman, ''Burton,'' Volume 1, p. 286) The possibility that Burton was correct is examined in detail by Idries Shah in his book entitled ''The Sufis'', beginning on page 205.

== Women in Freemasonry ==

The position of women within Freemasonry is complex. Traditionally, only men could be made Freemasons. This has been changing in the last hundred years, but more quickly in some jurisdictions than others. In Britain and France, and most other countries, women generally join "co-Masonic" Lodges, such as those under the international jurisdiction Le Droit Humain (LDH), which admit both men and women, or they join Lodges under local jurisdictions that admit only women. In North America, it is more common for women not to become Freemasons ''per se'', but to join an associated body with its own, separate traditions, the Order of the Eastern Star (OES), which admits only male Freemasons and their female relatives. In the Netherlands, there is a completely separate, although allied, sorority for women, the Order of Weavers (OOW), which uses symbols from weaving rather than stonemasonry.

The GOdF and other Continental jurisdictions give full formal recognition to co-Freemasonry and women's Freemasonry. The UGLE and other Anglo jurisdictions do not formally recognize any Masonic body that accepts women, although in many countries they have an understanding and a kind of informal acceptance that such bodies are part of Freemasonry in a larger sense. The UGLE, for instance, has "recognized" (since 1998) two local women's jurisdictions as regular in practice, ''except'' for their inclusion of women, and has indicated that, while not formally recognized, these bodies may be regarded as part of Freemasonry. Thus, the position of women in Freemasonry is rapidly changing in the English-speaking world. While in many cases, North America is following England's lead on the issue of women, the remaining resistance to women in Freemasonry is mostly concentrated there.

== Prince Hall Masonry ==

In 1775, an African American named Prince Hall was initiated into an Irish Constitution Military Lodge, along with fourteen other African Americans, all of whom were free by birth. When the Military Lodge left the area, the African Americans were given the authority to meet as a Lodge, form Processions on the days of the Saints John, and conduct Masonic funerals, but not to confer degrees nor to do other Masonic Work. These individuals applied for, and obtained, a Warrant for Charter from the Grand Lodge of England in 1784 and formed African Lodge #459. Despite being stricken from the rolls for non-payment of dues after 1813, the Lodge restyled itself as the African Grand Lodge #1 (not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges on the Continent of Africa) and separated from UGLE-recognised Masonry. This led to a tradition of separate, predominantly African American jurisdictions in North America, known collectively as "Prince Hall Freemasonry", which flourished due to widespread racism in North America, which prevented African Americans from joining many mainstream lodges (for instance, the traditional "born free" entrance requirement may have been used in some lodges to exclude Americans of African descent). Presently, Prince Hall Masonry is recognised by some UGLE-recognized Grand Lodges and not by others, and appears to be working its way toward full recognition (see [http://www.mindspring.com/~johnsonx/whoisph.htm]).

John Marrant the Selina, Countess of Huntingdonian minister preached to the Prince Hall Lodge on 24th June 1789. His Nova Scotia congregation was significant in the successful agitation for repatriation by Black Loyalists as well as the subsequent revolt which occurred in Sierra Leone in 1800.

== The two great schisms of Freemasonry (1753 and 1877) ==

The PGLE (Premier Grand Lodge of England), along with those jurisdictions with which it was in amity, later came to be known colloquially as the "Moderns", to distinguish them from a newer, rival group of Freemasonry, known as the "Antients." The Antients broke away and formed their own Grand Lodge in 1753, prompted by the PGLE's making changes to the secret modes of recognition. Tensions between the two groups were very high at times. Benjamin Franklin was a "Modern" and a deist, for instance, but by the time he died, his Lodge had gone "Antient", and would no longer recognize him as one of their own, declining even to give him a Masonic funeral (see "Revolutionary Brotherhood", by Steven C. Bullock, Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1996).

The schism was healed in the years following 1813, when the competing Grand Lodges were amalgamated, by virtue of a delicately worded compromise which left English Masonry clearly not Christian, returned the modes of recognition to their pre-1753 form, kept Freemasonry ''per se'' as consisting of three degrees only, but which was ambiguously worded so as to allow the Moderns to think of the Antient Royal Arch degree as an optional higher degree, while still allowing the Antients to view it as the completion of the third degree (see [http://freemasonry.org/psoc/pragmatic.htm]).

Because both the Antients and the Moderns had "daughter" Lodges throughout the world, and because many of those Lodges still exist, there is a great deal of variability in the Ritual used today, even between UGLE-recognized jurisdictions. Most Lodges conduct their Work in accordance with an agreed-upon single "Rite," such as the "York Rite" (which is popular in the United States), or the "Canadian Rite" (which is, in some ways, a concordance between the Rites used by the "Antients" and "Moderns").

The second great schism in Freemasonry occurred in the years following 1877, when the GOdF started accepting atheists unreservedly. While the issue of atheism is probably the greatest single factor in the split with the GOdF, the English also point to the French recognition of women's Masonry and co-Masonry, as well as the tendency of French Masons to be more willing to discuss religion and politics in Lodge. While the French curtail such discussion, they do not ban it as outright as do the English (see [http://bessel.org/masrec/france.htm]). The schism between the two branches has occasionally been breached for short periods of time, especially during the First World War when American Masons overseas wanted to be able to visit French Lodges (see [http://www.bessel.org/recfranc.htm]).

Concerning religious requirements, the oldest constitution of Freemasonry (that of Anderson, 1723) says only that a Mason "will never be a stupid Atheist nor an irreligious Libertine" if he "rightly understands the Art". The only religion required was "that Religion in which all Men agree, leaving their particular Opinions to themselves" ([http://www.2be1ask1.com/library/anderson.html]). Masons disagree as to whether "stupid" and "irreligious" are meant as necessary or as accidental modifiers of "atheist" and "libertine". It is possible the ambiguity is intentional. In 1815, the newly amalgamated UGLE changed Anderson's constitutions to include more orthodox overtones: "Let a man's religion or mode of worship be what it may, he is not excluded from the Order, provided he believes in the glorious Architect of heaven and earth, and practices the sacred duties of morality." The English enforce this with a requirement for belief in a Supreme Being, and in his revealed will. While these requirements can still be interpreted in a non-theistic manner, they made it more difficult for unorthodox believers to enter the fraternity.

In 1849, the GOdF followed the English lead by adopting the "Supreme Being" requirement, but there was increasing pressure in Latin countries to openly admit atheists. There was an attempt at a compromise in 1875, by allowing the alternative phrase "Creative Principle" (which was less theistic-sounding than "Supreme Being"), but this was ultimately not enough for the GOdF, and in 1877 they went back to having no religious entrance requirements, adopting the original Anderson document of 1723 as their official Constitutions. They also created a modified ritual that made no direct verbal reference to the G.A.O.T.U. (although, as a symbol, it was arguably still present). This new Rite did not replace the older ones, but was added as an alternative (European jurisdictions in general tend not to restrict themselves to a single Rite, like most North American jurisdictions, but offer a menu of Rites, from which their Lodges can choose.)

==Cultural references==
* The Freemasons are spoofed in a Simpsons sketch as ''The Stonecutters'', a secret organization that controls everything from NASA to the Academy Awards.

==External links==
*[http://www.grand-lodge.org/ United Grand Lodge of England] (UGLE)
*[http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/ PS Review of Freemasonry]
*[http://www.godf.org/ Grand Orient de France] (GOdF)
*[http://www.masonicinfo.com/famous.htm Famous Freemasons]
*[http://www.internetloge.de/hotlinks/hyplink.htm Masonic Link Collection]
*[http://internetloge.de/masmon/masmon.htm WEBB'S FREEMASON'S MONITOR - including the first three degrees]
*[http://internetloge.de/masmanu/masmanu.htm Robert Macoy: THE MASONIC MANUAL - A pocket Companion for the Initiated]
*[http://internetloge.de/massym/massym.htm Albert G. Mackey, M. D.: SYMBOLISM OF FREEMASONRY]
*[http://www.internetloge.de/kunst/kunstabe.htm Masonic Art]

==References==

Large portions of this text was originally taken from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freemasonry Freemasonry]''. Retrieved Sept. 21, 2004.

Paschal Beverly Randolph

2004-09-29T09:33:28Z

Phos: /* External links */

{{stub}}

'''Paschal Beverly Randolph''' ([[October 8]], [[1825]] - [[July 29]], [[1875]]) was born according to conflicting sources in [[New York]] or [[Virginia]], a free man of mixed-race ancestry.

His background led naturally to his being a spokesman for the abolition of [[slavery]], and he trained as a doctor of [[medicine]]. However, he was also a spiritualist, and an advocate of the use of [[hashish]] to create trances; and after initiation by [[Eliphas Levi]] founded the [[Fraternitas Rosae Crucis]], the oldest [[Rosicrucian]] organization in the [[United States]], which today avoids mention of Randolph's assiduous interest in sex-magic.

Famous occultists and practitioners of [[sex magic]], [[Theodor Reuss]] and [[Aleister Crowley]] were heavily influenced by Randolph in both organizing the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] (O.T.O.) and in their sex magick rituals. However, The major difference between Randolph's sex magic on the one hand, and that of Reuss and Crowley on the other, is that Randoplh was working from a standpoint of gender parity and the latter were male-centered exclusively. In practical terms, this means that Randolph sought to produce spiritual and magical effects through prayers or invocations agreed upon prior to the mutual orgasm of both partners ("the nuptive moment"), while Reuss and Crowley believed that women were little more than passive vehicles for male spiritual attainment and that male orgasm.

In 1875 Randolph committed [[suicide]], aged 49, and was succeeded as Supreme Grand Master of the Fraternitas, and in other titles, by his chosen successor [[Freeman B. Dowd]].

In 1996 the biography ''[[Paschal Beverly Randolph: A Nineteenth-Century Black American Spiritualist, Rosicrucian, and Sex Magician]]'' by John Patrick Devaney and Franklin Rosemont was published (ISBN 0791431207).

== External links ==
*[http://www.hermetic.com/sabazius/randolph.htm Biography by T. Allen Greenfield]
*[http://www.luckymojo.com/tkpbrandolph.html Unofficial Biography]
*[http://www.soul.org/PB-Randolph.html Official Biography]

==References==

This text was slightly edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paschal_Beverly_Randolph Paschal Beverly Randolph]''. Retrieved Sept. 28, 2004.

Talk:Paschal Beverly Randolph

2004-09-29T09:27:17Z

Phos:

This could probably use some better information than what was pulled from wikipedia.--[[User:Phos|phos]] 05:27, 29 Sep 2004 (EDT)

Talk:Paschal Beverly Randolph

2004-09-29T09:26:54Z

Phos:

This could probably use some better information than what was pulled from wikipedia.

Paschal Beverly Randolph

2004-09-29T09:26:29Z

Phos:

{{stub}}

'''Paschal Beverly Randolph''' ([[October 8]], [[1825]] - [[July 29]], [[1875]]) was born according to conflicting sources in [[New York]] or [[Virginia]], a free man of mixed-race ancestry.

His background led naturally to his being a spokesman for the abolition of [[slavery]], and he trained as a doctor of [[medicine]]. However, he was also a spiritualist, and an advocate of the use of [[hashish]] to create trances; and after initiation by [[Eliphas Levi]] founded the [[Fraternitas Rosae Crucis]], the oldest [[Rosicrucian]] organization in the [[United States]], which today avoids mention of Randolph's assiduous interest in sex-magic.

Famous occultists and practitioners of [[sex magic]], [[Theodor Reuss]] and [[Aleister Crowley]] were heavily influenced by Randolph in both organizing the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] (O.T.O.) and in their sex magick rituals. However, The major difference between Randolph's sex magic on the one hand, and that of Reuss and Crowley on the other, is that Randoplh was working from a standpoint of gender parity and the latter were male-centered exclusively. In practical terms, this means that Randolph sought to produce spiritual and magical effects through prayers or invocations agreed upon prior to the mutual orgasm of both partners ("the nuptive moment"), while Reuss and Crowley believed that women were little more than passive vehicles for male spiritual attainment and that male orgasm.

In 1875 Randolph committed [[suicide]], aged 49, and was succeeded as Supreme Grand Master of the Fraternitas, and in other titles, by his chosen successor [[Freeman B. Dowd]].

In 1996 the biography ''[[Paschal Beverly Randolph: A Nineteenth-Century Black American Spiritualist, Rosicrucian, and Sex Magician]]'' by John Patrick Devaney and Franklin Rosemont was published (ISBN 0791431207).

== External links ==
*[http://http://www.hermetic.com/sabazius/randolph.htm Biography by T. Allen Greenfield]
*[http://www.luckymojo.com/tkpbrandolph.html Unofficial Biography]
*[http://www.soul.org/PB-Randolph.html Official Biography]

==References==

This text was slightly edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paschal_Beverly_Randolph Paschal Beverly Randolph]''. Retrieved Sept. 28, 2004.

Paschal Beverly Randolph

2004-09-29T09:24:10Z

Phos: /* External links */

'''Paschal Beverly Randolph''' ([[October 8]], [[1825]] - [[July 29]], [[1875]]) was born according to conflicting sources in [[New York]] or [[Virginia]], a free man of mixed-race ancestry.

His background led naturally to his being a spokesman for the abolition of [[slavery]], and he trained as a doctor of [[medicine]]. However, he was also a spiritualist, and an advocate of the use of [[hashish]] to create trances; and after initiation by [[Eliphas Levi]] founded the [[Fraternitas Rosae Crucis]], the oldest [[Rosicrucian]] organization in the [[United States]], which today avoids mention of Randolph's assiduous interest in sex-magic.

Famous occultists and practitioners of [[sex magic]], [[Theodor Reuss]] and [[Aleister Crowley]] were heavily influenced by Randolph in both organizing the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] (O.T.O.) and in their sex magick rituals. However, The major difference between Randolph's sex magic on the one hand, and that of Reuss and Crowley on the other, is that Randoplh was working from a standpoint of gender parity and the latter were male-centered exclusively. In practical terms, this means that Randolph sought to produce spiritual and magical effects through prayers or invocations agreed upon prior to the mutual orgasm of both partners ("the nuptive moment"), while Reuss and Crowley believed that women were little more than passive vehicles for male spiritual attainment and that male orgasm.

In 1875 Randolph committed [[suicide]], aged 49, and was succeeded as Supreme Grand Master of the Fraternitas, and in other titles, by his chosen successor [[Freeman B. Dowd]].

In 1996 the biography ''[[Paschal Beverly Randolph: A Nineteenth-Century Black American Spiritualist, Rosicrucian, and Sex Magician]]'' by John Patrick Devaney and Franklin Rosemont was published (ISBN 0791431207).

== External links ==
*[http://http://www.hermetic.com/sabazius/randolph.htm Biography by T. Allen Greenfield]
*[http://www.luckymojo.com/tkpbrandolph.html Unofficial Biography]
*[http://www.soul.org/PB-Randolph.html Official Biography]

==References==

This text was slightly edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paschal_Beverly_Randolph Paschal Beverly Randolph]''. Retrieved Sept. 28, 2004.

Paschal Beverly Randolph

2004-09-29T09:23:15Z

Phos:

'''Paschal Beverly Randolph''' ([[October 8]], [[1825]] - [[July 29]], [[1875]]) was born according to conflicting sources in [[New York]] or [[Virginia]], a free man of mixed-race ancestry.

His background led naturally to his being a spokesman for the abolition of [[slavery]], and he trained as a doctor of [[medicine]]. However, he was also a spiritualist, and an advocate of the use of [[hashish]] to create trances; and after initiation by [[Eliphas Levi]] founded the [[Fraternitas Rosae Crucis]], the oldest [[Rosicrucian]] organization in the [[United States]], which today avoids mention of Randolph's assiduous interest in sex-magic.

Famous occultists and practitioners of [[sex magic]], [[Theodor Reuss]] and [[Aleister Crowley]] were heavily influenced by Randolph in both organizing the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] (O.T.O.) and in their sex magick rituals. However, The major difference between Randolph's sex magic on the one hand, and that of Reuss and Crowley on the other, is that Randoplh was working from a standpoint of gender parity and the latter were male-centered exclusively. In practical terms, this means that Randolph sought to produce spiritual and magical effects through prayers or invocations agreed upon prior to the mutual orgasm of both partners ("the nuptive moment"), while Reuss and Crowley believed that women were little more than passive vehicles for male spiritual attainment and that male orgasm.

In 1875 Randolph committed [[suicide]], aged 49, and was succeeded as Supreme Grand Master of the Fraternitas, and in other titles, by his chosen successor [[Freeman B. Dowd]].

In 1996 the biography ''[[Paschal Beverly Randolph: A Nineteenth-Century Black American Spiritualist, Rosicrucian, and Sex Magician]]'' by John Patrick Devaney and Franklin Rosemont was published (ISBN 0791431207).

== External links ==
*[http://http://www.hermetic.com/sabazius/randolph.htm Biography by T. Allen Greenfield
*[http://www.luckymojo.com/tkpbrandolph.html Unofficial Biography]
*[http://www.soul.org/PB-Randolph.html Official Biography]

==References==

This text was slightly edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paschal_Beverly_Randolph Paschal Beverly Randolph]''. Retrieved Sept. 28, 2004.

Buddhism

2004-09-29T09:14:54Z

Phos: /* The three main branches of Buddhism */

'''Buddhism''' is a [[religion]] and [[Buddhist philosophy|philosophy]] based on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha|Siddhārtha Gautama]] ([[Sanskrit]]; in [[Pali|Pāli]], ''Siddhattha Gotama''), who lived between approximately [[560s BCE|563]] and [[483 BCE]]. Originating in [[India]], Buddhism gradually spread throughout Asia to [[Central Asia]], [[Tibet]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Southeast Asia]], as well as the East Asian countries of [[China]], [[Mongolia]], [[Korea]], and [[Japan]].

Buddhism teaches followers to perform good and wholesome actions, to avoid bad and harmful actions, and to purify and train the mind. The aim of these practices is to put an end to suffering and achieve enlightenment, either individually or for all beings. [[Enlightenment_(Buddhism)|Enlightenment]] leads to [[Nirvana]] (Sanskrit: "extinguishment")

Buddhist morality is underpinned by the principles of harmlessness and moderation. Mental training focuses on moral discipline (''[[sila]]''), meditative concentration (''[[samadhi]]''), and [[wisdom]] (''prajñā'').

While Buddhism does not deny the existence of supernatural beings (indeed, many are discussed in Buddhist scripture), it does not ascribe power for creation, salvation or judgement to them. Like humans, they are regarded as having the power to affect worldly events, and so some Buddhist schools associate with them via ritual.

{{buddhism}}

== What is a Buddha? ==

''Buddha'' is a word in the ancient [[India|Indian]] languages [[Pali|Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]] which means "one who has become awake". It is derived from the verbal root "√budh", meaning "to awaken."

The word "Buddha" denotes not just a single religious teacher who lived in a particular epoch, but a type of person, of which there have been many instances in the course of cosmic time. (As an analogy, the term "American President" refers not just to one man, but to everyone who has ever held the office of the American presidency.) The Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, then, is simply one member in the spiritual lineage of Buddhas, which stretches back into the dim recesses of the past and forward into the distant horizons of the future.

Gautama did not claim any divine status for himself, nor did he assert that he was inspired by a god or gods. He claimed to be not a personal saviour, but a teacher to guide those who choose to listen. A Buddha is any human being who has fully awakened to the true nature of existence, whose insight has totally transformed him or her beyond birth, death, and subsequent rebirth, and who is enabled to help others achieve the same enlightenment.

The principles by which a person can be led to enlightenment are known as the [[Buddhadharma]], or simply the Dharma. [[Dharma]] in this sense of the rather complex term means, "law, doctrine, or truth." Anyone can attain what the Buddha attained regardless of age, [[sex|gender]], or [[caste]]. Indeed, Buddhists believe there have been many solitary buddhas (Pāli pacceka-buddha; Sanskrit: [[pratyekabuddha]]) who achieved enlightenment on their own but did not go on to teach others. According to one of the stories in the [[Sutta Nipata|Sutta Nipāta]], the Buddha, too, was afraid to teach humans because he despaired of their limited capacity for understanding. The [[Vedic]] (early [[Hindu]]) god [[Indra]], however, interceded, and requested that he teach despite this. That the historical Buddha did so is thus a mark of special compassion.

== Origins ==

Legend has it that the Buddha to be, [[Siddhartha Gautama|Siddhārtha Gautama]], was born around the [[6th century BCE]]. His birthplace is said to be [[Lumbini]] in the kingdom of [[Magadha]], in what is now Nepal. His father was a king, and Siddhārtha lived in luxury, being spared all hardship.

The legends say that a seer predicted that Siddhartha would become either a great king or a great holy man; because of this, the king tried to make sure that Siddhartha never had any cause for dissatisfaction with his life, as that might drive him toward a spiritual path. Nevertheless, at the age of 29, while being escorted by his attendant Channa, he came across what has become known as the [[Four Passing Sights]]: an old crippled man, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and finally a wandering holy man. These ''four sights'', as they are called, led him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness and death came to everyone, not only once but repeated for life after life in succession for uncounted aeons. He decided to abandon his worldly life, leaving behind his wife and child, his privilege, rank, [[caste]], and to take up the life of a wandering holy man in search of the answer to the problem of birth, old age, sickness, and death. It is said that he stole out of the house in the dead of night, pausing for one last look at his family, and did not return there for a very long time.

Indian holy men (''sādhus''), in those days just as today, engaged in a variety of [[ascetic]] practices designed to "mortify" the flesh. This belief was taken to an extreme in the faith of [[Jainism]]. It was thought that by enduring pain and suffering, the [[atman|ātman]] (Sanskrit; Pāli: atta) or "[[soul]]" became free from the round of rebirth into pain and sorrow. Siddhārtha proved adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no answer to his problem and, leaving behind his teachers, he and a small group of companions set out to take their austerities even further. He became a skeleton covered with skin, surviving on a single grain of rice per day, and practiced holding his breath. After nearly starving himself to death with no success (some sources claim that he nearly drowned), Siddhārtha began to reconsider his path. Then he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state in which time seemed to stand still, and which was blissful and refreshing. Perhaps this would provide an alternative to the dead end of self-mortification?

Taking a little buttermilk from a passing goatherd, he found a large tree (now called the ''[[Bodhi tree]]'') under which he would be shaded from the heat of the mid-summer sun, and set to [[meditation|meditating]]. This new way of practicing began to bear fruit. His mind became concentrated and pure, and then, six years after he began his quest, he attained [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]], and became a [[Buddha]].

Historically speaking, there are questions about this story. First, there are other narrative versions of his life that do not exactly match - one has it that the Buddha leaves home in the "prime of his youth", his parents weeping and wailing all the while. Second, we know from other sources that the country of [[Magadha]], where he was born, was an [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] [[republic]] at that time, so there was no royal family of which to speak. However, regardless of the details of his early life, the evidence strongly indicates that the Buddha was indeed a historical person living in approximately the same time and place in which he is traditionally placed.

''See also: [[Earliest Buddhism]]''

==Principles of Buddhism==

===The Three Jewels===

Buddhists seek refuge in what are often referred to as the ''Three Jewels'', ''Triple Gem'' or ''Triple Jewel''. These are the [[Buddha]], the [[Dharma]], and the "noble" (Sanskrit: ''arya'') [[Sangha]] or community of monks and nuns who have become enlightened. While it is impossible to escape one's [[karma]] or the effects caused by previous thoughts, words and deeds, it is possible to avoid the suffering that comes from it by becoming enlightened. In this way, [[dharma]] offers a refuge. [[Dharma]], used in the sense of the Buddha's teachings, provides a raft and is thus a temporary refuge while entering and crossing the river. However, the real refuge is on the other side of the river.

To one who is seeking to become enlightened, taking refuge constitutes a continuing commitment to pursuing enlightenment and following in the footsteps of the people who have followed the path to enlightenment before. It contains an element of confidence that enlightenment is in fact a refuge, a supreme resort. Many Buddhists take the refuges each day, sometimes more than once in order to remind themselves of what they are doing and to direct their resolve inwardly towards liberation.

Although Buddhists concur that taking refuge should be undertaken with proper motivation (complete liberation) and an understanding of the objects of refuge, the Indian scholar [[Atisha]] identified that in practice there are many different motives found for taking refuge. His idea was to use these differing motivations as a key to resolving any apparent conflicts between all the Buddha's teachings without depending upon some form of syncresis that would cause as much confusion as it attempted to alleviate.

In the [[11th century]], ''Lamp for the Path'' by Atisha, and in the subsequent Lamrim tradition as elaborated by [[Tsongkhapa]], the several motives for refuge are enumerated as follows, typically introduced using the concept of the "scope" (level of motivation) of a practitioner:

* Worldly scope is taking refuge to improve the lot of this life
* Low scope is taking refuge to gain high rebirth and avoid the low realms
* Middle scope is taking refuge to achieve Nirvana
* High scope is taking refuge to achieve Buddhahood
* Highest scope is also sometimes included, which is taking refuge to achieve Buddhahood in this life.

''See also: [[Three Jewels]]''

===The Four Noble Truths===
The Buddha taught that life was dissatisfactory because of craving, but that this condition was curable by following the eightfold path. This teaching is called the [[four noble truths]]:

# ''[[Dukkha]]'': All worldly life is unsatisfactory, disjointed, containing suffering.
# ''Samudaya'': There is a cause of suffering, which is attachment or desire (''tanha'') rooted in ignorance.
# ''Nirodha'': There is an end of suffering, which is Nirvana.
# ''Marga'': There is a path that leads out of suffering, known as the Noble Eightfold Path.

===The Noble Eightfold Path===
In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain lifestyle or path be followed which consists of:
#''Right Understanding''
#''Right Thought''
#''Right Speech''
#''Right Action''
#''Right Livelihood''
#''Right Effort''
#''Right Mindfulness''
#''Right Concentration''

Sometimes in the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages which the practitioner moves through, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, but it is more usual to view the stages of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development.

The Eightfold Path essentially consists of meditation, following the precepts, and cultivating the positive converse of the precepts (e.g. benefiting living beings is the converse of the first precept of harmlessness). The Path may also be thought of as a the way of developing [[sila|{{SH}}īla]], meaning mental and moral discipline.

''See also: [[Noble Eightfold Path]]''

===The Five Precepts===
Buddhists undertake certain precepts as aids on the path to coming into contact with ultimate reality. Laypeople generally undertake five precepts. The five precepts are:

# I undertake the precept to refrain from harming living creatures (killing).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from [[sexual misconduct]].
# I undertake the precept to refrain from incorrect speech (lying, harsh language, slander, idle chit-chat).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness.

In some schools of Buddhism, serious lay people or aspiring monks take an additional three to five ethical precepts, and some of the five precepts are strengthened. For example, the precept pertaining to [[sexual misconduct]] becomes a precept of celibacy; the fourth precept, which pertains to incorrect speech, is expanded to four: lying, harsh language, slander, and idle chit-chat. Monks and nuns in most countries also vow to follow the 227 [[patimokkha]] rules.

''See also: [[Pancasila]]''

=== The three marks of conditioned existence ===

According to the Buddhist tradition all phenomena ([[dharma#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]) are marked by three characteristics, sometimes referred to as the ''Dharma Seals'':

*[[Anatta]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman): All beings have no self. In Indian philosophy, the concept of a self is called ātman (that is, "[[Soul#Buddhist_beliefs|soul]]" or metaphysical self), which refers to an unchanging, permanent essence. This concept and the related concept of [[Brahman|Bra{{h}}man]], the Vedantic [[monism|monistic]] ideal, which was regarded as an ultimate [[Atman|ātman]] for all beings, were indispensable for mainstream Indian metaphysics, logic, and science; for all apparent things there had to be an underlying and persistent reality, akin to a [[Platonic form]]. The Buddha rejected the concept of ātman, emphasizing not permanence but changeability. If the soul were permanent and unchanging--if all existence has its root in something fixed--then change becomes philosophically difficult to account for (this is similar to [[Zeno's paradoxes]]). This problem was analyzed extensively by [[Nagarjuna|{{nagarjuna}}]].
*[[Anicca]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: anitya): All things and experiences are inconstant, unsteady, and impermanent. Everything is made up of parts, and is dependent on the right conditions for its existence. Everything is in flux, and so conditions are constantly changing. Things are constantly coming into being, and ceasing to be. Nothing lasts.
*[[Dukkha]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: du{{h}}kha): because we fail to truly grasp the first two conditions, we suffer. We desire a lasting satisfaction, but look for it amongst constantly changing phenomena. We perceive a self, and act to enhance that self by pursuing pleasure, and seek to prolong pleasure when it too is fleeting.

It is by realizing (not merely understanding intellectually, but making real in one's experience) the three marks of conditioned existence that one develops [[Prajna|Praj{{NNN}}ā]], which is the antidote to the ignorance that lies at the root of all suffering.

''See also: [[three marks of existence]]''

===Other principles and practices===

*[[Meditation]] or [[dhyana|dhyāna]] of some form is a common practice in most if not all schools of Buddhism, for the clergy if not the laity.
*Central to Buddhist doctrine and practice is the law of ''[[karma]]'' and ''[[vipaka]]''; action and its fruition, which happens within the dynamic of [[dependent origination]] (''pratītya-samutpāda''). Actions which result in positive retribution (happiness) are defined as skillful or good, while actions that produce negative results (suffering) are called unskillful or bad actions. These actions are expressed by the way of mind, body or speech. Some actions bring instant retribution while the results of other actions may not appear until a future lifetime.
*[[Rebirth (Buddhist)|Rebirth]], which is closely related to the law of karma. An action in this life may not give fruit or reaction until the next life time. This being said, action in a past life takes effect in this one, making a chain of existence. The full realization of the absence of an eternal self or soul (the doctrine of anatta (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman) breaks this cycle of birth and death ([[samsara|sa{{m}}sāra]]).

===Vegetarianism===

The [[Pancasila|first lay precept]] in Buddhism prohibits killing. Many see this as implying that Buddhists should not eat the meat of animals. However, this is not necessarily the case. The Buddha made distinction between killing an animal and consumption of meat, stressing that it is immoral conduct that makes one impure, not the food one eats. Monks in ancient India were expected to receive all of their food by begging, and so theoretically should have no control at all over their diet. During the Buddha's time, there was no general rule requiring monks to refrain from eating meat. In fact, at one point the Buddha specifically refused to institute vegetarianisn and the [[Pali Canon]] records the Buddha himself eating meat on several occasions. There were, however, rules prohibiting certain types of meat, such as human, leopard or elephant meat. Monks are also prohibited from consuming meat if the monk witnessed the animal's death or knows that it was killed specifically for him. This rule was applied to commercial purchase of meat in the case of a general who sent a servant to purchase meat specifically to feed the Buddha. Therefore, eating commercially purchased meat is not prohibited.

On the other hand, certain [[Mahayana sutra]]s make a stronger argument against eating meat. In the [[Nirvana Sutra]], the Buddha states that "the eating of meat extinguishes the seed of great compassion". A long passage in the [[Lankavatara Sutra]] shows the Buddha weighing strongly in favor of vegetarianism. And several other Mahayana Vyana prohibit consumption of meat.

In the modern world, attitudes toward vegetarianism vary by location. In the Theravada countries of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka, monks are bound by the vinaya to accept almost any food that is offered to them, often including meat, while in China and Vietnam, monks are expected to eat no meat. In Japan and Korea, some monks practice vegetarianism, and most will do so at least when training at a monastery, but otherwise they typically do eat meat. In Tibet, where [[vegetable]] [[nutrition]] was historically very scarce, and the adopted vinaya was the [[Nikaya]] [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]], vegetarianism is very rare, although the [[Dalai Lama]] has recently made several comments encouraging its adoption. In the West, of course, a wide variety of practices are followed. Lay Buddhists generally follow dietary rules less rigorously than monks.

== The three main branches of Buddhism ==

Buddhism has evolved into myriad schools that can be roughly grouped into three types: Nikaya, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Of the Nikaya schools, only the Theravada survives. Each branch sees itself as representing the true, original teachings of the Buddha, although some schools believe that the dialectic nature of Buddhism allows its format, terminology, and techniques to adapt over time in response to changing circumstances.

The [[Theravada]] school, whose name means "Doctrine of the Elders", bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon]]. This is considered to be the oldest of the surviving [[Tripitaka|Buddhist canons]], and its sutras are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism. [[Theravada]] is the only surviving representative of the historical [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikaya branch]]. Nikaya Buddhism and consequently Theravada are sometimes referred to as [[Hinayana]] or "lesser vehicle", although this is generally considered to be impolite. Theravada is practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Thailand, and portions of Vietnam and Malaysia.

The [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]], or "Great Vehicle" branch, emphasizes universal compassion and the selfless ideal of the [[bodhisattva]]. In addition to the [[Nikaya]] scriptures, Mahāyāna schools recognize all or part of a genre of scriptures that were first put in writing around [[1 CE]]. These later scriptures were written in Sanskrit and are concerned with the purpose of achieving Buddhahood by following the path of the bodhisattva over the course of what is often described as [[kalpa|countless eons]] of time. Because of this immense timeframe, many Mahāyāna schools accept the idea of working towards rebirth in a [[Pure Land]], which is not enlightenment in itself but which is a highly conducive environment for working toward enlightenment. Mahāyāna Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, and most of Vietnam.

The [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism) shares many of the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in as little as three years. In addition to the Theravada and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of texts that include the Buddhist Tantras. Vajrayana is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, [[Kalmykia]], areas of India, and, to a limited extent, in China and Japan.

== Buddhism after the Buddha ==

Buddhism spread slowly in India until the powerful [[Maurya]] emperor [[Asoka]] converted to it and actively supported it. His promotion led to construction of Buddhist religious sites and missionary efforts that spread the faith into the countries listed at the beginning of the article.

After about 500, Buddhism waned in India, becoming a very minor religion after about 1200. This was partially due to [[Islam|Muslim]] invasions, and partially due to [[Hinduism]] absorbing Buddhist principles. It remained in the rest of the world, although in Central Asia and later Indonesia it was mostly replaced by Islam. In China and Japan, it mixed with the native beliefs of [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]], and [[Shinto]], respectively. In Tibet, the Vajrayana lineage was preserved after it disappeared in India.

=== History of the schools ===

Three months after the passing of Gautama Buddha, The '''First Council''' was held at Rajagaha by his immediate disciples who had attained [[Arhat|Arahantship]] (Enlightenment). Maha Kassapa, the most respected and elderly monk, presided at the Council. Only two sections the ''Dhamma'' and the ''Vinaya'' were recited at the First Council. All [[Arhat|Arahants]] unanimously agree that no disciplinary rule laid down by the Buddha should be changed, and no new ones should be introduced. At this point, no conflict about what the Buddha taught is known to have occurred, so the teachings were divided into various parts and each was assigned to an elder and his pupils to commit to memory. These groups of people often cross-checked with each other to ensure that no omissions or additions were made.

At the '''Second Council''', one hundred years later, it was not the dharma that was called into question but the monks' code of rules or [[vinaya]]. This resulted in the formation of the Sthaviravādin and Mahāsanghika schools. Opinions differ on the cause of the split: the Sthaviravādins described their opponents as lax monks who had ceased to follow all the vinaya rules, while the Mahāsanghikas argued that the Buddha had never intended a rigid adherence to all the minor rules. After this initial division, more were to follow. Schism in early Buddhism was typically not on points of doctrine (orthodoxy), but in the area of practice (orthopraxy). So if two schools shared a vinaya, but were in dispute over doctrinal matters, it was not unlikely that they would continue to practice together. However, if one group disputed the vinaya of another, this would often prevent common practice.

In the [[3rd century BC]] the '''Third Council''' was convened under the patronage of Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]], primarily for the purpose of establishing an official orthodoxy. At the council, small groups raised questions the specifics of the vinaya and the interpretation of doctrine. The chairman of the council, Moggaliputta Tissa, compiled a book called the ''[[Kathavatthu]]'', which was meant to refute these arguments. The council sided with Moggaliputta and his version of Buddhism as orthodox; it was then adopted by Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]] as his empire's official religion. This school of thought was termed ''[[Vibhajyavada|Vibhajjavada]]'' ([[Pali]]), literaly "Teaching of Analysis". The version of the scriptures that had been established at the Third Council, including the vinaya, sutta and the [[abhidhamma]] commentaries (collectively known as Tripitaka), was taken to [[Sri Lanka]] by Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]]'s son, the Venerable [[Mahinda]]. There it was eventually committed to [[writing]] in the [[Pali]] language. The [[Pali Canon]] remains the only complete set of [[Nikaya]] scriptures to survive, although fragments of other versions exist.

Between the [[1st century BC]] and the [[1st century|1st century AD]], the terms [[Mahayana]] and [[Hinayana]] were first used in writing, in, for example, the [[Lotus Sutra]].

The '''Fourth Council''' was convened by the [[Kushan]] emperor [[Kanishka]], around [[100 AD]] at Jalandhar or in Kashmir, and is usually associated with the formal rise of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of this council, and it is sometimes called the “council of heretical monks”.

It is said that Kanishka gathered 500 [[Bhikkhu]]s, headed by Vasumitra, to edit the [[Tripitaka]] and make references and remarks. A set of new scriptures were approved, as well as fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine. The new scriptures, usually in the [[Gandhari]] vernacular and the [[Kharosthi]] script, were rewritten in the classical language of [[Sanskrit]], to many scholars a turning point in the propagation of Buddhist thought.

During and after the [[2nd century]], versions of the Mahayana vision became clearly defined in the works of [[Nagarjuna]], Asanga, Shantideva, [[Ashvagosha]], and Vasubandhu.

Around the [[1st century]], Buddhism spread from India through successive waves of merchants and pilgrims. It reached as far as Arabia to the west, and eastward to southeast Asia, where the first records of Buddhism date from around [[5th century|400]]. Mahayana Buddhism established a major regional center in what is today [[Afghanistan]], and from there it spread to [[Buddhism in China|China]], Korea, Mongolia, and [[Japanese Buddhism|Japan]]. In [[475]], the Indian monk [[Bodhidharma]] travelled to China and established the [[Chan]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: [[Zen]]), school. During the [[first millennium]], monks from China such as [[I Ching (monk)|Yijing]] and [[Xuanzang]] made pilgrimages to India.

At one time, different [[Turkic]] and [[Tocharian]] groups along the northern fringe of [[East Turkestan]] (modern [[Xinjiang]] in western China) adhered to the Theravada school. However, Buddhism there was supplanted by the introduction of [[Islam]] around [[11th century|1000]].

[[Vajrayana]] also evolved at this stage carried from [[India]] to [[Tibet]] around [[9th century|800]] by teachers such as [[Padmasambhava]] and [[Atisha]]. There it initially coexisted with native belief systems such as [[Bön]], but later came to largely supplant or absorb them. An early form of esoteric Vajrayana known as [[Shingon]] was also transmitted by the priest [[Kukai|Kūkai]] to [[Japan]], where it continues to be practiced.

There is still an active debate as to whether or not [[Tantra|Tantrism]] was initially developed within Buddhism or Hinduism. Buddhist literature tends to predate the later puranic Tantras, and there is some evidence to suggest that the basic structure of tantra depends upon the Mahayana Buddhist philosophical schools. However, it is thought by others that [[meditation|meditative]] [[Shiva]] sects seem to have existed from pre-[[Vedic]] times; also, from scriptural citations and study of the [[Vedas]], some say Tantra saw its philosophical basis in the mystical rites and mantras of the [[Atharva Veda]] (and later the Hindu [[Upanishad]]s and [[Mahayana]] school of Buddhism).

''See also: [[History of Buddhism]] and [[Timeline of Buddhism]]''

== Scriptures ==

The Buddhist canon of [[scripture]] is known in [[Sanskrit]] as the ''Tripi{{t}}aka'' and in [[Pali|Pāli]] as the ''[[Tipitaka|Tipi{{t}}aka]]''. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refers to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:

*The ''[[Vinaya|Vināya]] Pi{{t}}aka'', containing disciplinary rules for the [[Sangha|Sā{{NN}}gha]] of Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as a range of other texts which explain why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
*The ''Sutta Pi{{t}}aka'' (Pāli; Sanskrit: Sutra Pi{{t}}aka), containing discourses of the Buddha.
*The ''[[Abhidhamma]]'' or commentary ''Piṭaka'' (Pāli; Sanskrit: Abhidharma Piṭaka), containing a philosophical systematization of the Buddha's teaching, including a detailed analysis of Buddhist psychology.

During the first few centuries after [[Gautama Buddha]], his teachings were transmitted orally, but around the [[1st Century]] [[Common Era|CE]] they began to be written down. A given school of Buddhism will generally have its own distinctive canon of texts, which will partially overlap with those of other schools. The most notable set of texts from the early period is the [[Pali Canon]], which was preserved in [[Sri Lanka]] by the [[Theravada|Theravāda]] school. The sutras it contains are also part of the canon of every other Buddhist sect. Full versions of the original text[http://jbe.gold.ac.uk/palicanon.html] and partial English translations[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/] are now readily available on the internet.

The appearance of the [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] tradition brought with it a collection of new texts, composed in [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]], many of which were also described as actual sermons of the [[Buddha]]. These include the [[Perfection of Wisdom]] Sutras, the [[Avatamsaka Sutra|Avata{{m}}saka]], the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Vimalakirti Sutra|Vimalakīrti Sutra]], and the [[Nirvana Sutra|{{n}}irvana Sutra]]. Many of the Mahayana sutras were translated into Tibetan and [[classical Chinese]] and are also now read in the West.

The Mahāyāna canon further expanded after Buddhism was transmitted to China, where the existing texts were translated, and new texts were composed for the purpose of adapting the Indian tradition to the East Asian philosophical mindset. Many of these works are considered by modern scholars to be spurious. Other new texts, such as the [[Platform Sutra]] and the [[Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment]] did not pretend to be of Indian origin, but were widely accepted as valid scriptures on their own merits. Later writings include the [[Linji Lu]] of [[Chan]] master [[Linji]]. In the course of the development of [[Korean Buddhism]] and [[Japanese Buddhism]], further important texts were composed. These included, for example, in Korea, some of the writings of [[Jinul]], and in Japan, works such as [[Dogen]]'s [[Shobogenzo]].

Arguably the most thorough compilation of Mahayana sutras is found in the Tibetan canon. This is split into those texts attributed to be authored by the Buddha (Kanjur), and those texts which are understood to be commentaries by Indian practitioners (Tenjur). [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] practitioners also study distinctive texts such as the Buddhist [[Tantric Buddhism|tantras]].

Recently an important archaeological discovery was made, consisting of the earliest known Buddhist manuscripts, recovered from somewhere near ancient [[Gandhara]] in northwest [[Pakistan]]. These fragments, written on birch bark, are dated to the [[1st century]] and have been compared to the [[Dead Sea scrolls]] in importance. Donated to the [[British Library]] in [[1994]], they are now are being studied in a joint project at the University of Washington[http://depts.washington.edu/ebmp/].

== Relations with other faiths ==

Many [[Hinduism|Hindus]] (primarily in the northern regions of India) believe that Gautama is the 9th incarnation (see [[avatar]]) of [[Vishnu]]. In the [[Japan]]ese religion of [[Shinto|Shintoism]] he is seen as a [[Kami]]. The [[Baha'i Faith]] states he was an independent Manifestation of God. Siddhartha Gautama is thought to have been sanctified by the [[Roman Catholic]] Church as Saint [[Josaphat (saint)|Josaphat]] based on a mistaken account of his conversion to Christianity. Some [[Islam|Muslims]] believe that Gautama Buddha is [[Dhul-Kifl]], one of the prophets mentioned in the [[Qur'an]].

[[Jainism]] is an Indian school of thought that was founded prior to Buddhism. One of its two most prominent teachers, [[Mahavira|Mahāvīra]], was a senior contemporary of the Buddha whose philosophy, sometimes described as [[dynamism]] or [[vitalism]], was a blend of the earlier Jain teacher [[Parsvanatha|Pārśvanātha]]'s [[asceticism]] and the naturalistic teachings of the [[Ajivikas|Ājīvikas]]. Dialogues between the Buddha's disciples and Mahāvīra are recorded in Jain texts, and dialogues between Mahāvīra's disciples and the Buddha are included in Buddhist texts, however there is no evidence the two teachers actually met.

== Buddhism in the modern world ==

According to [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html statistics from adherents.com], estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 and 500 million, with 350 million as the most commonly cited figure.

===Modern Asia===

In northern Asia, [[Mahayana|{{Mahayana}}]] remains the most common form of Buddhism in [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and [[Vietnam]]. [[Theravada|Theravāda]] predominates in most of [[Southeast Asia]], including [[Burma]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]], as well as [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] is predominant in [[Tibet]], [[Mongolia]], and portions of [[India]].

While in the West Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhist organizations in Asia frequently are well-funded and enjoy support from the wealthy and influential. In some cases, this has led critics to charge that certain monks and organizations are too closely associated with powerful and are neglecting their duties to the poor.

===Buddhism and the West===

In the latter half of the 1800s, Buddhism (along with many other of the world's religions and philosophies) came to the attention of Western intellectuals. These included the pessimistic German philosopher [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] and the American philosopher [[Henry David Thoreau]], who translated a Buddhist sutra from French into English. Spiritual enthusiasts enjoyed what they saw as the exotic and mystical tone of the Asian traditions. At first Western Buddhology was hampered by poor translations (often translations of translations), but soon Western scholars began to learn Asian languages and translate Asian texts. In [[1899]] [[Gordon Douglas]] became the first Westerner to be ordained as a Buddhist monk.

The first Buddhists to arrive in the [[United States]] were Chinese. Hired as cheap labor for the [[railroads]] and other expanding industries, they established temples in their settlements along the rail lines.

The [[Buddhist Society, London]] was founded by [[Christmas Humphreys]] in [[1924]].

The cultural re-evaluations of the [[hippie]] generation in the late [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]] included a renewed interest in Buddhism, proclaimed by some of them as a natural path to awareness, and enlightenment. Many people, including celebrities, traveled to Asia in pursuit of gurus and ancient wisdom. Buddhism had become the fastest-growing religion in Australia and many other Western nations by the 1990s, in contrast to the steady decline of traditional western beliefs (see [[Christianity]]).

A distinctive feature of Buddhism in the West has been the emergence of groups that, while drawing on traditional Buddhism, attempt to create a new form of Buddhist practice. Examples include the Shambala movement, founded by [[Chögyam Trungpa]], and the [[Friends of the Western Buddhist Order]], founded by [[Sangharakshita]].

==See also==

===Buddhism===
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]
* [[Buddhist terms and concepts]]
* [[Buddhist texts]]
* [[List of books related to Buddhism]]
* [[List of Buddhists]]
* [[Cultural elements of Buddhism]]

===Related systems===
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Taoism]]
* [[Hinduism]]

==External links==
* [http://www.e-sangha.com/ E-Sangha Buddhism Portal]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net/ BuddhaNet]
* [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/buddhist.htm Critical Resources: Buddha & Buddhism]
* [http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet]
* [http://www.acmuller.net/ddb Digital Dictionary of Buddhism]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/bfaq.html FAQ about Buddhism from Access to Insight]
* [http://www.orientalia.org/dic3.html International Dictionary of Buddhism]
* [http://www.urbandharma.org/ UrbanDharma]
* [http://www.buddhistview.com/ Buddhist Views]

==References==

This text was slightly edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism Buddhism]''. Retrieved Sept. 28, 2004.

Buddhism

2004-09-29T09:14:23Z

Phos: /* Principles of Buddhism */

'''Buddhism''' is a [[religion]] and [[Buddhist philosophy|philosophy]] based on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha|Siddhārtha Gautama]] ([[Sanskrit]]; in [[Pali|Pāli]], ''Siddhattha Gotama''), who lived between approximately [[560s BCE|563]] and [[483 BCE]]. Originating in [[India]], Buddhism gradually spread throughout Asia to [[Central Asia]], [[Tibet]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Southeast Asia]], as well as the East Asian countries of [[China]], [[Mongolia]], [[Korea]], and [[Japan]].

Buddhism teaches followers to perform good and wholesome actions, to avoid bad and harmful actions, and to purify and train the mind. The aim of these practices is to put an end to suffering and achieve enlightenment, either individually or for all beings. [[Enlightenment_(Buddhism)|Enlightenment]] leads to [[Nirvana]] (Sanskrit: "extinguishment")

Buddhist morality is underpinned by the principles of harmlessness and moderation. Mental training focuses on moral discipline (''[[sila]]''), meditative concentration (''[[samadhi]]''), and [[wisdom]] (''prajñā'').

While Buddhism does not deny the existence of supernatural beings (indeed, many are discussed in Buddhist scripture), it does not ascribe power for creation, salvation or judgement to them. Like humans, they are regarded as having the power to affect worldly events, and so some Buddhist schools associate with them via ritual.

{{buddhism}}

== What is a Buddha? ==

''Buddha'' is a word in the ancient [[India|Indian]] languages [[Pali|Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]] which means "one who has become awake". It is derived from the verbal root "√budh", meaning "to awaken."

The word "Buddha" denotes not just a single religious teacher who lived in a particular epoch, but a type of person, of which there have been many instances in the course of cosmic time. (As an analogy, the term "American President" refers not just to one man, but to everyone who has ever held the office of the American presidency.) The Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, then, is simply one member in the spiritual lineage of Buddhas, which stretches back into the dim recesses of the past and forward into the distant horizons of the future.

Gautama did not claim any divine status for himself, nor did he assert that he was inspired by a god or gods. He claimed to be not a personal saviour, but a teacher to guide those who choose to listen. A Buddha is any human being who has fully awakened to the true nature of existence, whose insight has totally transformed him or her beyond birth, death, and subsequent rebirth, and who is enabled to help others achieve the same enlightenment.

The principles by which a person can be led to enlightenment are known as the [[Buddhadharma]], or simply the Dharma. [[Dharma]] in this sense of the rather complex term means, "law, doctrine, or truth." Anyone can attain what the Buddha attained regardless of age, [[sex|gender]], or [[caste]]. Indeed, Buddhists believe there have been many solitary buddhas (Pāli pacceka-buddha; Sanskrit: [[pratyekabuddha]]) who achieved enlightenment on their own but did not go on to teach others. According to one of the stories in the [[Sutta Nipata|Sutta Nipāta]], the Buddha, too, was afraid to teach humans because he despaired of their limited capacity for understanding. The [[Vedic]] (early [[Hindu]]) god [[Indra]], however, interceded, and requested that he teach despite this. That the historical Buddha did so is thus a mark of special compassion.

== Origins ==

Legend has it that the Buddha to be, [[Siddhartha Gautama|Siddhārtha Gautama]], was born around the [[6th century BCE]]. His birthplace is said to be [[Lumbini]] in the kingdom of [[Magadha]], in what is now Nepal. His father was a king, and Siddhārtha lived in luxury, being spared all hardship.

The legends say that a seer predicted that Siddhartha would become either a great king or a great holy man; because of this, the king tried to make sure that Siddhartha never had any cause for dissatisfaction with his life, as that might drive him toward a spiritual path. Nevertheless, at the age of 29, while being escorted by his attendant Channa, he came across what has become known as the [[Four Passing Sights]]: an old crippled man, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and finally a wandering holy man. These ''four sights'', as they are called, led him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness and death came to everyone, not only once but repeated for life after life in succession for uncounted aeons. He decided to abandon his worldly life, leaving behind his wife and child, his privilege, rank, [[caste]], and to take up the life of a wandering holy man in search of the answer to the problem of birth, old age, sickness, and death. It is said that he stole out of the house in the dead of night, pausing for one last look at his family, and did not return there for a very long time.

Indian holy men (''sādhus''), in those days just as today, engaged in a variety of [[ascetic]] practices designed to "mortify" the flesh. This belief was taken to an extreme in the faith of [[Jainism]]. It was thought that by enduring pain and suffering, the [[atman|ātman]] (Sanskrit; Pāli: atta) or "[[soul]]" became free from the round of rebirth into pain and sorrow. Siddhārtha proved adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no answer to his problem and, leaving behind his teachers, he and a small group of companions set out to take their austerities even further. He became a skeleton covered with skin, surviving on a single grain of rice per day, and practiced holding his breath. After nearly starving himself to death with no success (some sources claim that he nearly drowned), Siddhārtha began to reconsider his path. Then he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state in which time seemed to stand still, and which was blissful and refreshing. Perhaps this would provide an alternative to the dead end of self-mortification?

Taking a little buttermilk from a passing goatherd, he found a large tree (now called the ''[[Bodhi tree]]'') under which he would be shaded from the heat of the mid-summer sun, and set to [[meditation|meditating]]. This new way of practicing began to bear fruit. His mind became concentrated and pure, and then, six years after he began his quest, he attained [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]], and became a [[Buddha]].

Historically speaking, there are questions about this story. First, there are other narrative versions of his life that do not exactly match - one has it that the Buddha leaves home in the "prime of his youth", his parents weeping and wailing all the while. Second, we know from other sources that the country of [[Magadha]], where he was born, was an [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] [[republic]] at that time, so there was no royal family of which to speak. However, regardless of the details of his early life, the evidence strongly indicates that the Buddha was indeed a historical person living in approximately the same time and place in which he is traditionally placed.

''See also: [[Earliest Buddhism]]''

==Principles of Buddhism==

===The Three Jewels===

Buddhists seek refuge in what are often referred to as the ''Three Jewels'', ''Triple Gem'' or ''Triple Jewel''. These are the [[Buddha]], the [[Dharma]], and the "noble" (Sanskrit: ''arya'') [[Sangha]] or community of monks and nuns who have become enlightened. While it is impossible to escape one's [[karma]] or the effects caused by previous thoughts, words and deeds, it is possible to avoid the suffering that comes from it by becoming enlightened. In this way, [[dharma]] offers a refuge. [[Dharma]], used in the sense of the Buddha's teachings, provides a raft and is thus a temporary refuge while entering and crossing the river. However, the real refuge is on the other side of the river.

To one who is seeking to become enlightened, taking refuge constitutes a continuing commitment to pursuing enlightenment and following in the footsteps of the people who have followed the path to enlightenment before. It contains an element of confidence that enlightenment is in fact a refuge, a supreme resort. Many Buddhists take the refuges each day, sometimes more than once in order to remind themselves of what they are doing and to direct their resolve inwardly towards liberation.

Although Buddhists concur that taking refuge should be undertaken with proper motivation (complete liberation) and an understanding of the objects of refuge, the Indian scholar [[Atisha]] identified that in practice there are many different motives found for taking refuge. His idea was to use these differing motivations as a key to resolving any apparent conflicts between all the Buddha's teachings without depending upon some form of syncresis that would cause as much confusion as it attempted to alleviate.

In the [[11th century]], ''Lamp for the Path'' by Atisha, and in the subsequent Lamrim tradition as elaborated by [[Tsongkhapa]], the several motives for refuge are enumerated as follows, typically introduced using the concept of the "scope" (level of motivation) of a practitioner:

* Worldly scope is taking refuge to improve the lot of this life
* Low scope is taking refuge to gain high rebirth and avoid the low realms
* Middle scope is taking refuge to achieve Nirvana
* High scope is taking refuge to achieve Buddhahood
* Highest scope is also sometimes included, which is taking refuge to achieve Buddhahood in this life.

''See also: [[Three Jewels]]''

===The Four Noble Truths===
The Buddha taught that life was dissatisfactory because of craving, but that this condition was curable by following the eightfold path. This teaching is called the [[four noble truths]]:

# ''[[Dukkha]]'': All worldly life is unsatisfactory, disjointed, containing suffering.
# ''Samudaya'': There is a cause of suffering, which is attachment or desire (''tanha'') rooted in ignorance.
# ''Nirodha'': There is an end of suffering, which is Nirvana.
# ''Marga'': There is a path that leads out of suffering, known as the Noble Eightfold Path.

===The Noble Eightfold Path===
In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain lifestyle or path be followed which consists of:
#''Right Understanding''
#''Right Thought''
#''Right Speech''
#''Right Action''
#''Right Livelihood''
#''Right Effort''
#''Right Mindfulness''
#''Right Concentration''

Sometimes in the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages which the practitioner moves through, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, but it is more usual to view the stages of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development.

The Eightfold Path essentially consists of meditation, following the precepts, and cultivating the positive converse of the precepts (e.g. benefiting living beings is the converse of the first precept of harmlessness). The Path may also be thought of as a the way of developing [[sila|{{SH}}īla]], meaning mental and moral discipline.

''See also: [[Noble Eightfold Path]]''

===The Five Precepts===
Buddhists undertake certain precepts as aids on the path to coming into contact with ultimate reality. Laypeople generally undertake five precepts. The five precepts are:

# I undertake the precept to refrain from harming living creatures (killing).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from [[sexual misconduct]].
# I undertake the precept to refrain from incorrect speech (lying, harsh language, slander, idle chit-chat).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness.

In some schools of Buddhism, serious lay people or aspiring monks take an additional three to five ethical precepts, and some of the five precepts are strengthened. For example, the precept pertaining to [[sexual misconduct]] becomes a precept of celibacy; the fourth precept, which pertains to incorrect speech, is expanded to four: lying, harsh language, slander, and idle chit-chat. Monks and nuns in most countries also vow to follow the 227 [[patimokkha]] rules.

''See also: [[Pancasila]]''

=== The three marks of conditioned existence ===

According to the Buddhist tradition all phenomena ([[dharma#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]) are marked by three characteristics, sometimes referred to as the ''Dharma Seals'':

*[[Anatta]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman): All beings have no self. In Indian philosophy, the concept of a self is called ātman (that is, "[[Soul#Buddhist_beliefs|soul]]" or metaphysical self), which refers to an unchanging, permanent essence. This concept and the related concept of [[Brahman|Bra{{h}}man]], the Vedantic [[monism|monistic]] ideal, which was regarded as an ultimate [[Atman|ātman]] for all beings, were indispensable for mainstream Indian metaphysics, logic, and science; for all apparent things there had to be an underlying and persistent reality, akin to a [[Platonic form]]. The Buddha rejected the concept of ātman, emphasizing not permanence but changeability. If the soul were permanent and unchanging--if all existence has its root in something fixed--then change becomes philosophically difficult to account for (this is similar to [[Zeno's paradoxes]]). This problem was analyzed extensively by [[Nagarjuna|{{nagarjuna}}]].
*[[Anicca]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: anitya): All things and experiences are inconstant, unsteady, and impermanent. Everything is made up of parts, and is dependent on the right conditions for its existence. Everything is in flux, and so conditions are constantly changing. Things are constantly coming into being, and ceasing to be. Nothing lasts.
*[[Dukkha]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: du{{h}}kha): because we fail to truly grasp the first two conditions, we suffer. We desire a lasting satisfaction, but look for it amongst constantly changing phenomena. We perceive a self, and act to enhance that self by pursuing pleasure, and seek to prolong pleasure when it too is fleeting.

It is by realizing (not merely understanding intellectually, but making real in one's experience) the three marks of conditioned existence that one develops [[Prajna|Praj{{NNN}}ā]], which is the antidote to the ignorance that lies at the root of all suffering.

''See also: [[three marks of existence]]''

===Other principles and practices===

*[[Meditation]] or [[dhyana|dhyāna]] of some form is a common practice in most if not all schools of Buddhism, for the clergy if not the laity.
*Central to Buddhist doctrine and practice is the law of ''[[karma]]'' and ''[[vipaka]]''; action and its fruition, which happens within the dynamic of [[dependent origination]] (''pratītya-samutpāda''). Actions which result in positive retribution (happiness) are defined as skillful or good, while actions that produce negative results (suffering) are called unskillful or bad actions. These actions are expressed by the way of mind, body or speech. Some actions bring instant retribution while the results of other actions may not appear until a future lifetime.
*[[Rebirth (Buddhist)|Rebirth]], which is closely related to the law of karma. An action in this life may not give fruit or reaction until the next life time. This being said, action in a past life takes effect in this one, making a chain of existence. The full realization of the absence of an eternal self or soul (the doctrine of anatta (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman) breaks this cycle of birth and death ([[samsara|sa{{m}}sāra]]).

===Vegetarianism===

The [[Pancasila|first lay precept]] in Buddhism prohibits killing. Many see this as implying that Buddhists should not eat the meat of animals. However, this is not necessarily the case. The Buddha made distinction between killing an animal and consumption of meat, stressing that it is immoral conduct that makes one impure, not the food one eats. Monks in ancient India were expected to receive all of their food by begging, and so theoretically should have no control at all over their diet. During the Buddha's time, there was no general rule requiring monks to refrain from eating meat. In fact, at one point the Buddha specifically refused to institute vegetarianisn and the [[Pali Canon]] records the Buddha himself eating meat on several occasions. There were, however, rules prohibiting certain types of meat, such as human, leopard or elephant meat. Monks are also prohibited from consuming meat if the monk witnessed the animal's death or knows that it was killed specifically for him. This rule was applied to commercial purchase of meat in the case of a general who sent a servant to purchase meat specifically to feed the Buddha. Therefore, eating commercially purchased meat is not prohibited.

On the other hand, certain [[Mahayana sutra]]s make a stronger argument against eating meat. In the [[Nirvana Sutra]], the Buddha states that "the eating of meat extinguishes the seed of great compassion". A long passage in the [[Lankavatara Sutra]] shows the Buddha weighing strongly in favor of vegetarianism. And several other Mahayana Vyana prohibit consumption of meat.

In the modern world, attitudes toward vegetarianism vary by location. In the Theravada countries of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka, monks are bound by the vinaya to accept almost any food that is offered to them, often including meat, while in China and Vietnam, monks are expected to eat no meat. In Japan and Korea, some monks practice vegetarianism, and most will do so at least when training at a monastery, but otherwise they typically do eat meat. In Tibet, where [[vegetable]] [[nutrition]] was historically very scarce, and the adopted vinaya was the [[Nikaya]] [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]], vegetarianism is very rare, although the [[Dalai Lama]] has recently made several comments encouraging its adoption. In the West, of course, a wide variety of practices are followed. Lay Buddhists generally follow dietary rules less rigorously than monks.

== The three main branches of Buddhism ==

[[Image:Ac.buddhas.jpg|thumb|300px|Several [[images of the Buddha]], on display at [[Wat Cheddi Luang]], [[Chiang Mai]], [[Thailand]].]]

Buddhism has evolved into myriad schools that can be roughly grouped into three types: Nikaya, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Of the Nikaya schools, only the Theravada survives. Each branch sees itself as representing the true, original teachings of the Buddha, although some schools believe that the dialectic nature of Buddhism allows its format, terminology, and techniques to adapt over time in response to changing circumstances.

The [[Theravada]] school, whose name means "Doctrine of the Elders", bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon]]. This is considered to be the oldest of the surviving [[Tripitaka|Buddhist canons]], and its sutras are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism. [[Theravada]] is the only surviving representative of the historical [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikaya branch]]. Nikaya Buddhism and consequently Theravada are sometimes referred to as [[Hinayana]] or "lesser vehicle", although this is generally considered to be impolite. Theravada is practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Thailand, and portions of Vietnam and Malaysia.

The [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]], or "Great Vehicle" branch, emphasizes universal compassion and the selfless ideal of the [[bodhisattva]]. In addition to the [[Nikaya]] scriptures, Mahāyāna schools recognize all or part of a genre of scriptures that were first put in writing around [[1 CE]]. These later scriptures were written in Sanskrit and are concerned with the purpose of achieving Buddhahood by following the path of the bodhisattva over the course of what is often described as [[kalpa|countless eons]] of time. Because of this immense timeframe, many Mahāyāna schools accept the idea of working towards rebirth in a [[Pure Land]], which is not enlightenment in itself but which is a highly conducive environment for working toward enlightenment. Mahāyāna Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, and most of Vietnam.

The [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism) shares many of the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in as little as three years. In addition to the Theravada and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of texts that include the Buddhist Tantras. Vajrayana is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, [[Kalmykia]], areas of India, and, to a limited extent, in China and Japan.

== Buddhism after the Buddha ==

Buddhism spread slowly in India until the powerful [[Maurya]] emperor [[Asoka]] converted to it and actively supported it. His promotion led to construction of Buddhist religious sites and missionary efforts that spread the faith into the countries listed at the beginning of the article.

After about 500, Buddhism waned in India, becoming a very minor religion after about 1200. This was partially due to [[Islam|Muslim]] invasions, and partially due to [[Hinduism]] absorbing Buddhist principles. It remained in the rest of the world, although in Central Asia and later Indonesia it was mostly replaced by Islam. In China and Japan, it mixed with the native beliefs of [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]], and [[Shinto]], respectively. In Tibet, the Vajrayana lineage was preserved after it disappeared in India.

=== History of the schools ===

Three months after the passing of Gautama Buddha, The '''First Council''' was held at Rajagaha by his immediate disciples who had attained [[Arhat|Arahantship]] (Enlightenment). Maha Kassapa, the most respected and elderly monk, presided at the Council. Only two sections the ''Dhamma'' and the ''Vinaya'' were recited at the First Council. All [[Arhat|Arahants]] unanimously agree that no disciplinary rule laid down by the Buddha should be changed, and no new ones should be introduced. At this point, no conflict about what the Buddha taught is known to have occurred, so the teachings were divided into various parts and each was assigned to an elder and his pupils to commit to memory. These groups of people often cross-checked with each other to ensure that no omissions or additions were made.

At the '''Second Council''', one hundred years later, it was not the dharma that was called into question but the monks' code of rules or [[vinaya]]. This resulted in the formation of the Sthaviravādin and Mahāsanghika schools. Opinions differ on the cause of the split: the Sthaviravādins described their opponents as lax monks who had ceased to follow all the vinaya rules, while the Mahāsanghikas argued that the Buddha had never intended a rigid adherence to all the minor rules. After this initial division, more were to follow. Schism in early Buddhism was typically not on points of doctrine (orthodoxy), but in the area of practice (orthopraxy). So if two schools shared a vinaya, but were in dispute over doctrinal matters, it was not unlikely that they would continue to practice together. However, if one group disputed the vinaya of another, this would often prevent common practice.

In the [[3rd century BC]] the '''Third Council''' was convened under the patronage of Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]], primarily for the purpose of establishing an official orthodoxy. At the council, small groups raised questions the specifics of the vinaya and the interpretation of doctrine. The chairman of the council, Moggaliputta Tissa, compiled a book called the ''[[Kathavatthu]]'', which was meant to refute these arguments. The council sided with Moggaliputta and his version of Buddhism as orthodox; it was then adopted by Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]] as his empire's official religion. This school of thought was termed ''[[Vibhajyavada|Vibhajjavada]]'' ([[Pali]]), literaly "Teaching of Analysis". The version of the scriptures that had been established at the Third Council, including the vinaya, sutta and the [[abhidhamma]] commentaries (collectively known as Tripitaka), was taken to [[Sri Lanka]] by Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]]'s son, the Venerable [[Mahinda]]. There it was eventually committed to [[writing]] in the [[Pali]] language. The [[Pali Canon]] remains the only complete set of [[Nikaya]] scriptures to survive, although fragments of other versions exist.

Between the [[1st century BC]] and the [[1st century|1st century AD]], the terms [[Mahayana]] and [[Hinayana]] were first used in writing, in, for example, the [[Lotus Sutra]].

The '''Fourth Council''' was convened by the [[Kushan]] emperor [[Kanishka]], around [[100 AD]] at Jalandhar or in Kashmir, and is usually associated with the formal rise of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of this council, and it is sometimes called the “council of heretical monks”.

It is said that Kanishka gathered 500 [[Bhikkhu]]s, headed by Vasumitra, to edit the [[Tripitaka]] and make references and remarks. A set of new scriptures were approved, as well as fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine. The new scriptures, usually in the [[Gandhari]] vernacular and the [[Kharosthi]] script, were rewritten in the classical language of [[Sanskrit]], to many scholars a turning point in the propagation of Buddhist thought.

During and after the [[2nd century]], versions of the Mahayana vision became clearly defined in the works of [[Nagarjuna]], Asanga, Shantideva, [[Ashvagosha]], and Vasubandhu.

Around the [[1st century]], Buddhism spread from India through successive waves of merchants and pilgrims. It reached as far as Arabia to the west, and eastward to southeast Asia, where the first records of Buddhism date from around [[5th century|400]]. Mahayana Buddhism established a major regional center in what is today [[Afghanistan]], and from there it spread to [[Buddhism in China|China]], Korea, Mongolia, and [[Japanese Buddhism|Japan]]. In [[475]], the Indian monk [[Bodhidharma]] travelled to China and established the [[Chan]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: [[Zen]]), school. During the [[first millennium]], monks from China such as [[I Ching (monk)|Yijing]] and [[Xuanzang]] made pilgrimages to India.

At one time, different [[Turkic]] and [[Tocharian]] groups along the northern fringe of [[East Turkestan]] (modern [[Xinjiang]] in western China) adhered to the Theravada school. However, Buddhism there was supplanted by the introduction of [[Islam]] around [[11th century|1000]].

[[Vajrayana]] also evolved at this stage carried from [[India]] to [[Tibet]] around [[9th century|800]] by teachers such as [[Padmasambhava]] and [[Atisha]]. There it initially coexisted with native belief systems such as [[Bön]], but later came to largely supplant or absorb them. An early form of esoteric Vajrayana known as [[Shingon]] was also transmitted by the priest [[Kukai|Kūkai]] to [[Japan]], where it continues to be practiced.

There is still an active debate as to whether or not [[Tantra|Tantrism]] was initially developed within Buddhism or Hinduism. Buddhist literature tends to predate the later puranic Tantras, and there is some evidence to suggest that the basic structure of tantra depends upon the Mahayana Buddhist philosophical schools. However, it is thought by others that [[meditation|meditative]] [[Shiva]] sects seem to have existed from pre-[[Vedic]] times; also, from scriptural citations and study of the [[Vedas]], some say Tantra saw its philosophical basis in the mystical rites and mantras of the [[Atharva Veda]] (and later the Hindu [[Upanishad]]s and [[Mahayana]] school of Buddhism).

''See also: [[History of Buddhism]] and [[Timeline of Buddhism]]''

== Scriptures ==

The Buddhist canon of [[scripture]] is known in [[Sanskrit]] as the ''Tripi{{t}}aka'' and in [[Pali|Pāli]] as the ''[[Tipitaka|Tipi{{t}}aka]]''. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refers to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:

*The ''[[Vinaya|Vināya]] Pi{{t}}aka'', containing disciplinary rules for the [[Sangha|Sā{{NN}}gha]] of Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as a range of other texts which explain why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
*The ''Sutta Pi{{t}}aka'' (Pāli; Sanskrit: Sutra Pi{{t}}aka), containing discourses of the Buddha.
*The ''[[Abhidhamma]]'' or commentary ''Piṭaka'' (Pāli; Sanskrit: Abhidharma Piṭaka), containing a philosophical systematization of the Buddha's teaching, including a detailed analysis of Buddhist psychology.

During the first few centuries after [[Gautama Buddha]], his teachings were transmitted orally, but around the [[1st Century]] [[Common Era|CE]] they began to be written down. A given school of Buddhism will generally have its own distinctive canon of texts, which will partially overlap with those of other schools. The most notable set of texts from the early period is the [[Pali Canon]], which was preserved in [[Sri Lanka]] by the [[Theravada|Theravāda]] school. The sutras it contains are also part of the canon of every other Buddhist sect. Full versions of the original text[http://jbe.gold.ac.uk/palicanon.html] and partial English translations[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/] are now readily available on the internet.

The appearance of the [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] tradition brought with it a collection of new texts, composed in [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]], many of which were also described as actual sermons of the [[Buddha]]. These include the [[Perfection of Wisdom]] Sutras, the [[Avatamsaka Sutra|Avata{{m}}saka]], the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Vimalakirti Sutra|Vimalakīrti Sutra]], and the [[Nirvana Sutra|{{n}}irvana Sutra]]. Many of the Mahayana sutras were translated into Tibetan and [[classical Chinese]] and are also now read in the West.

The Mahāyāna canon further expanded after Buddhism was transmitted to China, where the existing texts were translated, and new texts were composed for the purpose of adapting the Indian tradition to the East Asian philosophical mindset. Many of these works are considered by modern scholars to be spurious. Other new texts, such as the [[Platform Sutra]] and the [[Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment]] did not pretend to be of Indian origin, but were widely accepted as valid scriptures on their own merits. Later writings include the [[Linji Lu]] of [[Chan]] master [[Linji]]. In the course of the development of [[Korean Buddhism]] and [[Japanese Buddhism]], further important texts were composed. These included, for example, in Korea, some of the writings of [[Jinul]], and in Japan, works such as [[Dogen]]'s [[Shobogenzo]].

Arguably the most thorough compilation of Mahayana sutras is found in the Tibetan canon. This is split into those texts attributed to be authored by the Buddha (Kanjur), and those texts which are understood to be commentaries by Indian practitioners (Tenjur). [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] practitioners also study distinctive texts such as the Buddhist [[Tantric Buddhism|tantras]].

Recently an important archaeological discovery was made, consisting of the earliest known Buddhist manuscripts, recovered from somewhere near ancient [[Gandhara]] in northwest [[Pakistan]]. These fragments, written on birch bark, are dated to the [[1st century]] and have been compared to the [[Dead Sea scrolls]] in importance. Donated to the [[British Library]] in [[1994]], they are now are being studied in a joint project at the University of Washington[http://depts.washington.edu/ebmp/].

== Relations with other faiths ==

Many [[Hinduism|Hindus]] (primarily in the northern regions of India) believe that Gautama is the 9th incarnation (see [[avatar]]) of [[Vishnu]]. In the [[Japan]]ese religion of [[Shinto|Shintoism]] he is seen as a [[Kami]]. The [[Baha'i Faith]] states he was an independent Manifestation of God. Siddhartha Gautama is thought to have been sanctified by the [[Roman Catholic]] Church as Saint [[Josaphat (saint)|Josaphat]] based on a mistaken account of his conversion to Christianity. Some [[Islam|Muslims]] believe that Gautama Buddha is [[Dhul-Kifl]], one of the prophets mentioned in the [[Qur'an]].

[[Jainism]] is an Indian school of thought that was founded prior to Buddhism. One of its two most prominent teachers, [[Mahavira|Mahāvīra]], was a senior contemporary of the Buddha whose philosophy, sometimes described as [[dynamism]] or [[vitalism]], was a blend of the earlier Jain teacher [[Parsvanatha|Pārśvanātha]]'s [[asceticism]] and the naturalistic teachings of the [[Ajivikas|Ājīvikas]]. Dialogues between the Buddha's disciples and Mahāvīra are recorded in Jain texts, and dialogues between Mahāvīra's disciples and the Buddha are included in Buddhist texts, however there is no evidence the two teachers actually met.

== Buddhism in the modern world ==

According to [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html statistics from adherents.com], estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 and 500 million, with 350 million as the most commonly cited figure.

===Modern Asia===

In northern Asia, [[Mahayana|{{Mahayana}}]] remains the most common form of Buddhism in [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and [[Vietnam]]. [[Theravada|Theravāda]] predominates in most of [[Southeast Asia]], including [[Burma]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]], as well as [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] is predominant in [[Tibet]], [[Mongolia]], and portions of [[India]].

While in the West Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhist organizations in Asia frequently are well-funded and enjoy support from the wealthy and influential. In some cases, this has led critics to charge that certain monks and organizations are too closely associated with powerful and are neglecting their duties to the poor.

===Buddhism and the West===

In the latter half of the 1800s, Buddhism (along with many other of the world's religions and philosophies) came to the attention of Western intellectuals. These included the pessimistic German philosopher [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] and the American philosopher [[Henry David Thoreau]], who translated a Buddhist sutra from French into English. Spiritual enthusiasts enjoyed what they saw as the exotic and mystical tone of the Asian traditions. At first Western Buddhology was hampered by poor translations (often translations of translations), but soon Western scholars began to learn Asian languages and translate Asian texts. In [[1899]] [[Gordon Douglas]] became the first Westerner to be ordained as a Buddhist monk.

The first Buddhists to arrive in the [[United States]] were Chinese. Hired as cheap labor for the [[railroads]] and other expanding industries, they established temples in their settlements along the rail lines.

The [[Buddhist Society, London]] was founded by [[Christmas Humphreys]] in [[1924]].

The cultural re-evaluations of the [[hippie]] generation in the late [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]] included a renewed interest in Buddhism, proclaimed by some of them as a natural path to awareness, and enlightenment. Many people, including celebrities, traveled to Asia in pursuit of gurus and ancient wisdom. Buddhism had become the fastest-growing religion in Australia and many other Western nations by the 1990s, in contrast to the steady decline of traditional western beliefs (see [[Christianity]]).

A distinctive feature of Buddhism in the West has been the emergence of groups that, while drawing on traditional Buddhism, attempt to create a new form of Buddhist practice. Examples include the Shambala movement, founded by [[Chögyam Trungpa]], and the [[Friends of the Western Buddhist Order]], founded by [[Sangharakshita]].

==See also==

===Buddhism===
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]
* [[Buddhist terms and concepts]]
* [[Buddhist texts]]
* [[List of books related to Buddhism]]
* [[List of Buddhists]]
* [[Cultural elements of Buddhism]]

===Related systems===
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Taoism]]
* [[Hinduism]]

==External links==
* [http://www.e-sangha.com/ E-Sangha Buddhism Portal]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net/ BuddhaNet]
* [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/buddhist.htm Critical Resources: Buddha & Buddhism]
* [http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet]
* [http://www.acmuller.net/ddb Digital Dictionary of Buddhism]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/bfaq.html FAQ about Buddhism from Access to Insight]
* [http://www.orientalia.org/dic3.html International Dictionary of Buddhism]
* [http://www.urbandharma.org/ UrbanDharma]
* [http://www.buddhistview.com/ Buddhist Views]

==References==

This text was slightly edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism Buddhism]''. Retrieved Sept. 28, 2004.

Buddhism

2004-09-29T09:13:39Z

Phos: /* Origins */

'''Buddhism''' is a [[religion]] and [[Buddhist philosophy|philosophy]] based on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha|Siddhārtha Gautama]] ([[Sanskrit]]; in [[Pali|Pāli]], ''Siddhattha Gotama''), who lived between approximately [[560s BCE|563]] and [[483 BCE]]. Originating in [[India]], Buddhism gradually spread throughout Asia to [[Central Asia]], [[Tibet]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Southeast Asia]], as well as the East Asian countries of [[China]], [[Mongolia]], [[Korea]], and [[Japan]].

Buddhism teaches followers to perform good and wholesome actions, to avoid bad and harmful actions, and to purify and train the mind. The aim of these practices is to put an end to suffering and achieve enlightenment, either individually or for all beings. [[Enlightenment_(Buddhism)|Enlightenment]] leads to [[Nirvana]] (Sanskrit: "extinguishment")

Buddhist morality is underpinned by the principles of harmlessness and moderation. Mental training focuses on moral discipline (''[[sila]]''), meditative concentration (''[[samadhi]]''), and [[wisdom]] (''prajñā'').

While Buddhism does not deny the existence of supernatural beings (indeed, many are discussed in Buddhist scripture), it does not ascribe power for creation, salvation or judgement to them. Like humans, they are regarded as having the power to affect worldly events, and so some Buddhist schools associate with them via ritual.

{{buddhism}}

== What is a Buddha? ==

''Buddha'' is a word in the ancient [[India|Indian]] languages [[Pali|Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]] which means "one who has become awake". It is derived from the verbal root "√budh", meaning "to awaken."

The word "Buddha" denotes not just a single religious teacher who lived in a particular epoch, but a type of person, of which there have been many instances in the course of cosmic time. (As an analogy, the term "American President" refers not just to one man, but to everyone who has ever held the office of the American presidency.) The Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, then, is simply one member in the spiritual lineage of Buddhas, which stretches back into the dim recesses of the past and forward into the distant horizons of the future.

Gautama did not claim any divine status for himself, nor did he assert that he was inspired by a god or gods. He claimed to be not a personal saviour, but a teacher to guide those who choose to listen. A Buddha is any human being who has fully awakened to the true nature of existence, whose insight has totally transformed him or her beyond birth, death, and subsequent rebirth, and who is enabled to help others achieve the same enlightenment.

The principles by which a person can be led to enlightenment are known as the [[Buddhadharma]], or simply the Dharma. [[Dharma]] in this sense of the rather complex term means, "law, doctrine, or truth." Anyone can attain what the Buddha attained regardless of age, [[sex|gender]], or [[caste]]. Indeed, Buddhists believe there have been many solitary buddhas (Pāli pacceka-buddha; Sanskrit: [[pratyekabuddha]]) who achieved enlightenment on their own but did not go on to teach others. According to one of the stories in the [[Sutta Nipata|Sutta Nipāta]], the Buddha, too, was afraid to teach humans because he despaired of their limited capacity for understanding. The [[Vedic]] (early [[Hindu]]) god [[Indra]], however, interceded, and requested that he teach despite this. That the historical Buddha did so is thus a mark of special compassion.

== Origins ==

Legend has it that the Buddha to be, [[Siddhartha Gautama|Siddhārtha Gautama]], was born around the [[6th century BCE]]. His birthplace is said to be [[Lumbini]] in the kingdom of [[Magadha]], in what is now Nepal. His father was a king, and Siddhārtha lived in luxury, being spared all hardship.

The legends say that a seer predicted that Siddhartha would become either a great king or a great holy man; because of this, the king tried to make sure that Siddhartha never had any cause for dissatisfaction with his life, as that might drive him toward a spiritual path. Nevertheless, at the age of 29, while being escorted by his attendant Channa, he came across what has become known as the [[Four Passing Sights]]: an old crippled man, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and finally a wandering holy man. These ''four sights'', as they are called, led him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness and death came to everyone, not only once but repeated for life after life in succession for uncounted aeons. He decided to abandon his worldly life, leaving behind his wife and child, his privilege, rank, [[caste]], and to take up the life of a wandering holy man in search of the answer to the problem of birth, old age, sickness, and death. It is said that he stole out of the house in the dead of night, pausing for one last look at his family, and did not return there for a very long time.

Indian holy men (''sādhus''), in those days just as today, engaged in a variety of [[ascetic]] practices designed to "mortify" the flesh. This belief was taken to an extreme in the faith of [[Jainism]]. It was thought that by enduring pain and suffering, the [[atman|ātman]] (Sanskrit; Pāli: atta) or "[[soul]]" became free from the round of rebirth into pain and sorrow. Siddhārtha proved adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no answer to his problem and, leaving behind his teachers, he and a small group of companions set out to take their austerities even further. He became a skeleton covered with skin, surviving on a single grain of rice per day, and practiced holding his breath. After nearly starving himself to death with no success (some sources claim that he nearly drowned), Siddhārtha began to reconsider his path. Then he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state in which time seemed to stand still, and which was blissful and refreshing. Perhaps this would provide an alternative to the dead end of self-mortification?

Taking a little buttermilk from a passing goatherd, he found a large tree (now called the ''[[Bodhi tree]]'') under which he would be shaded from the heat of the mid-summer sun, and set to [[meditation|meditating]]. This new way of practicing began to bear fruit. His mind became concentrated and pure, and then, six years after he began his quest, he attained [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]], and became a [[Buddha]].

Historically speaking, there are questions about this story. First, there are other narrative versions of his life that do not exactly match - one has it that the Buddha leaves home in the "prime of his youth", his parents weeping and wailing all the while. Second, we know from other sources that the country of [[Magadha]], where he was born, was an [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] [[republic]] at that time, so there was no royal family of which to speak. However, regardless of the details of his early life, the evidence strongly indicates that the Buddha was indeed a historical person living in approximately the same time and place in which he is traditionally placed.

''See also: [[Earliest Buddhism]]''

==Principles of Buddhism==

[[image:ac.buddhists.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Buddhists praying at the temple [[Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep]], near [[Chiang Mai]], [[Thailand]].]]

===The Three Jewels===

Buddhists seek refuge in what are often referred to as the ''Three Jewels'', ''Triple Gem'' or ''Triple Jewel''. These are the [[Buddha]], the [[Dharma]], and the "noble" (Sanskrit: ''arya'') [[Sangha]] or community of monks and nuns who have become enlightened. While it is impossible to escape one's [[karma]] or the effects caused by previous thoughts, words and deeds, it is possible to avoid the suffering that comes from it by becoming enlightened. In this way, [[dharma]] offers a refuge. [[Dharma]], used in the sense of the Buddha's teachings, provides a raft and is thus a temporary refuge while entering and crossing the river. However, the real refuge is on the other side of the river.

To one who is seeking to become enlightened, taking refuge constitutes a continuing commitment to pursuing enlightenment and following in the footsteps of the people who have followed the path to enlightenment before. It contains an element of confidence that enlightenment is in fact a refuge, a supreme resort. Many Buddhists take the refuges each day, sometimes more than once in order to remind themselves of what they are doing and to direct their resolve inwardly towards liberation.

Although Buddhists concur that taking refuge should be undertaken with proper motivation (complete liberation) and an understanding of the objects of refuge, the Indian scholar [[Atisha]] identified that in practice there are many different motives found for taking refuge. His idea was to use these differing motivations as a key to resolving any apparent conflicts between all the Buddha's teachings without depending upon some form of syncresis that would cause as much confusion as it attempted to alleviate.

In the [[11th century]], ''Lamp for the Path'' by Atisha, and in the subsequent Lamrim tradition as elaborated by [[Tsongkhapa]], the several motives for refuge are enumerated as follows, typically introduced using the concept of the "scope" (level of motivation) of a practitioner:

* Worldly scope is taking refuge to improve the lot of this life
* Low scope is taking refuge to gain high rebirth and avoid the low realms
* Middle scope is taking refuge to achieve Nirvana
* High scope is taking refuge to achieve Buddhahood
* Highest scope is also sometimes included, which is taking refuge to achieve Buddhahood in this life.

''See also: [[Three Jewels]]''

===The Four Noble Truths===
The Buddha taught that life was dissatisfactory because of craving, but that this condition was curable by following the eightfold path. This teaching is called the [[four noble truths]]:

# ''[[Dukkha]]'': All worldly life is unsatisfactory, disjointed, containing suffering.
# ''Samudaya'': There is a cause of suffering, which is attachment or desire (''tanha'') rooted in ignorance.
# ''Nirodha'': There is an end of suffering, which is Nirvana.
# ''Marga'': There is a path that leads out of suffering, known as the Noble Eightfold Path.

===The Noble Eightfold Path===
[[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpg|frame|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]]

In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain lifestyle or path be followed which consists of:
#''Right Understanding''
#''Right Thought''
#''Right Speech''
#''Right Action''
#''Right Livelihood''
#''Right Effort''
#''Right Mindfulness''
#''Right Concentration''

Sometimes in the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages which the practitioner moves through, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, but it is more usual to view the stages of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development.

The Eightfold Path essentially consists of meditation, following the precepts, and cultivating the positive converse of the precepts (e.g. benefiting living beings is the converse of the first precept of harmlessness). The Path may also be thought of as a the way of developing [[sila|{{SH}}īla]], meaning mental and moral discipline.

''See also: [[Noble Eightfold Path]]''

===The Five Precepts===
Buddhists undertake certain precepts as aids on the path to coming into contact with ultimate reality. Laypeople generally undertake five precepts. The five precepts are:

# I undertake the precept to refrain from harming living creatures (killing).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from [[sexual misconduct]].
# I undertake the precept to refrain from incorrect speech (lying, harsh language, slander, idle chit-chat).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness.

In some schools of Buddhism, serious lay people or aspiring monks take an additional three to five ethical precepts, and some of the five precepts are strengthened. For example, the precept pertaining to [[sexual misconduct]] becomes a precept of celibacy; the fourth precept, which pertains to incorrect speech, is expanded to four: lying, harsh language, slander, and idle chit-chat. Monks and nuns in most countries also vow to follow the 227 [[patimokkha]] rules.

''See also: [[Pancasila]]''

=== The three marks of conditioned existence ===

According to the Buddhist tradition all phenomena ([[dharma#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]) are marked by three characteristics, sometimes referred to as the ''Dharma Seals'':

*[[Anatta]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman): All beings have no self. In Indian philosophy, the concept of a self is called ātman (that is, "[[Soul#Buddhist_beliefs|soul]]" or metaphysical self), which refers to an unchanging, permanent essence. This concept and the related concept of [[Brahman|Bra{{h}}man]], the Vedantic [[monism|monistic]] ideal, which was regarded as an ultimate [[Atman|ātman]] for all beings, were indispensable for mainstream Indian metaphysics, logic, and science; for all apparent things there had to be an underlying and persistent reality, akin to a [[Platonic form]]. The Buddha rejected the concept of ātman, emphasizing not permanence but changeability. If the soul were permanent and unchanging--if all existence has its root in something fixed--then change becomes philosophically difficult to account for (this is similar to [[Zeno's paradoxes]]). This problem was analyzed extensively by [[Nagarjuna|{{nagarjuna}}]].
*[[Anicca]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: anitya): All things and experiences are inconstant, unsteady, and impermanent. Everything is made up of parts, and is dependent on the right conditions for its existence. Everything is in flux, and so conditions are constantly changing. Things are constantly coming into being, and ceasing to be. Nothing lasts.
*[[Dukkha]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: du{{h}}kha): because we fail to truly grasp the first two conditions, we suffer. We desire a lasting satisfaction, but look for it amongst constantly changing phenomena. We perceive a self, and act to enhance that self by pursuing pleasure, and seek to prolong pleasure when it too is fleeting.

It is by realizing (not merely understanding intellectually, but making real in one's experience) the three marks of conditioned existence that one develops [[Prajna|Praj{{NNN}}ā]], which is the antidote to the ignorance that lies at the root of all suffering.

''See also: [[three marks of existence]]''

===Other principles and practices===

*[[Meditation]] or [[dhyana|dhyāna]] of some form is a common practice in most if not all schools of Buddhism, for the clergy if not the laity.
*Central to Buddhist doctrine and practice is the law of ''[[karma]]'' and ''[[vipaka]]''; action and its fruition, which happens within the dynamic of [[dependent origination]] (''pratītya-samutpāda''). Actions which result in positive retribution (happiness) are defined as skillful or good, while actions that produce negative results (suffering) are called unskillful or bad actions. These actions are expressed by the way of mind, body or speech. Some actions bring instant retribution while the results of other actions may not appear until a future lifetime.
*[[Rebirth (Buddhist)|Rebirth]], which is closely related to the law of karma. An action in this life may not give fruit or reaction until the next life time. This being said, action in a past life takes effect in this one, making a chain of existence. The full realization of the absence of an eternal self or soul (the doctrine of anatta (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman) breaks this cycle of birth and death ([[samsara|sa{{m}}sāra]]).

===Vegetarianism===

The [[Pancasila|first lay precept]] in Buddhism prohibits killing. Many see this as implying that Buddhists should not eat the meat of animals. However, this is not necessarily the case. The Buddha made distinction between killing an animal and consumption of meat, stressing that it is immoral conduct that makes one impure, not the food one eats. Monks in ancient India were expected to receive all of their food by begging, and so theoretically should have no control at all over their diet. During the Buddha's time, there was no general rule requiring monks to refrain from eating meat. In fact, at one point the Buddha specifically refused to institute vegetarianisn and the [[Pali Canon]] records the Buddha himself eating meat on several occasions. There were, however, rules prohibiting certain types of meat, such as human, leopard or elephant meat. Monks are also prohibited from consuming meat if the monk witnessed the animal's death or knows that it was killed specifically for him. This rule was applied to commercial purchase of meat in the case of a general who sent a servant to purchase meat specifically to feed the Buddha. Therefore, eating commercially purchased meat is not prohibited.

On the other hand, certain [[Mahayana sutra]]s make a stronger argument against eating meat. In the [[Nirvana Sutra]], the Buddha states that "the eating of meat extinguishes the seed of great compassion". A long passage in the [[Lankavatara Sutra]] shows the Buddha weighing strongly in favor of vegetarianism. And several other Mahayana Vyana prohibit consumption of meat.

In the modern world, attitudes toward vegetarianism vary by location. In the Theravada countries of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka, monks are bound by the vinaya to accept almost any food that is offered to them, often including meat, while in China and Vietnam, monks are expected to eat no meat. In Japan and Korea, some monks practice vegetarianism, and most will do so at least when training at a monastery, but otherwise they typically do eat meat. In Tibet, where [[vegetable]] [[nutrition]] was historically very scarce, and the adopted vinaya was the [[Nikaya]] [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]], vegetarianism is very rare, although the [[Dalai Lama]] has recently made several comments encouraging its adoption. In the West, of course, a wide variety of practices are followed. Lay Buddhists generally follow dietary rules less rigorously than monks.

== The three main branches of Buddhism ==

[[Image:Ac.buddhas.jpg|thumb|300px|Several [[images of the Buddha]], on display at [[Wat Cheddi Luang]], [[Chiang Mai]], [[Thailand]].]]

Buddhism has evolved into myriad schools that can be roughly grouped into three types: Nikaya, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Of the Nikaya schools, only the Theravada survives. Each branch sees itself as representing the true, original teachings of the Buddha, although some schools believe that the dialectic nature of Buddhism allows its format, terminology, and techniques to adapt over time in response to changing circumstances.

The [[Theravada]] school, whose name means "Doctrine of the Elders", bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon]]. This is considered to be the oldest of the surviving [[Tripitaka|Buddhist canons]], and its sutras are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism. [[Theravada]] is the only surviving representative of the historical [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikaya branch]]. Nikaya Buddhism and consequently Theravada are sometimes referred to as [[Hinayana]] or "lesser vehicle", although this is generally considered to be impolite. Theravada is practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Thailand, and portions of Vietnam and Malaysia.

The [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]], or "Great Vehicle" branch, emphasizes universal compassion and the selfless ideal of the [[bodhisattva]]. In addition to the [[Nikaya]] scriptures, Mahāyāna schools recognize all or part of a genre of scriptures that were first put in writing around [[1 CE]]. These later scriptures were written in Sanskrit and are concerned with the purpose of achieving Buddhahood by following the path of the bodhisattva over the course of what is often described as [[kalpa|countless eons]] of time. Because of this immense timeframe, many Mahāyāna schools accept the idea of working towards rebirth in a [[Pure Land]], which is not enlightenment in itself but which is a highly conducive environment for working toward enlightenment. Mahāyāna Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, and most of Vietnam.

The [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism) shares many of the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in as little as three years. In addition to the Theravada and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of texts that include the Buddhist Tantras. Vajrayana is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, [[Kalmykia]], areas of India, and, to a limited extent, in China and Japan.

== Buddhism after the Buddha ==

Buddhism spread slowly in India until the powerful [[Maurya]] emperor [[Asoka]] converted to it and actively supported it. His promotion led to construction of Buddhist religious sites and missionary efforts that spread the faith into the countries listed at the beginning of the article.

After about 500, Buddhism waned in India, becoming a very minor religion after about 1200. This was partially due to [[Islam|Muslim]] invasions, and partially due to [[Hinduism]] absorbing Buddhist principles. It remained in the rest of the world, although in Central Asia and later Indonesia it was mostly replaced by Islam. In China and Japan, it mixed with the native beliefs of [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]], and [[Shinto]], respectively. In Tibet, the Vajrayana lineage was preserved after it disappeared in India.

=== History of the schools ===

Three months after the passing of Gautama Buddha, The '''First Council''' was held at Rajagaha by his immediate disciples who had attained [[Arhat|Arahantship]] (Enlightenment). Maha Kassapa, the most respected and elderly monk, presided at the Council. Only two sections the ''Dhamma'' and the ''Vinaya'' were recited at the First Council. All [[Arhat|Arahants]] unanimously agree that no disciplinary rule laid down by the Buddha should be changed, and no new ones should be introduced. At this point, no conflict about what the Buddha taught is known to have occurred, so the teachings were divided into various parts and each was assigned to an elder and his pupils to commit to memory. These groups of people often cross-checked with each other to ensure that no omissions or additions were made.

At the '''Second Council''', one hundred years later, it was not the dharma that was called into question but the monks' code of rules or [[vinaya]]. This resulted in the formation of the Sthaviravādin and Mahāsanghika schools. Opinions differ on the cause of the split: the Sthaviravādins described their opponents as lax monks who had ceased to follow all the vinaya rules, while the Mahāsanghikas argued that the Buddha had never intended a rigid adherence to all the minor rules. After this initial division, more were to follow. Schism in early Buddhism was typically not on points of doctrine (orthodoxy), but in the area of practice (orthopraxy). So if two schools shared a vinaya, but were in dispute over doctrinal matters, it was not unlikely that they would continue to practice together. However, if one group disputed the vinaya of another, this would often prevent common practice.

In the [[3rd century BC]] the '''Third Council''' was convened under the patronage of Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]], primarily for the purpose of establishing an official orthodoxy. At the council, small groups raised questions the specifics of the vinaya and the interpretation of doctrine. The chairman of the council, Moggaliputta Tissa, compiled a book called the ''[[Kathavatthu]]'', which was meant to refute these arguments. The council sided with Moggaliputta and his version of Buddhism as orthodox; it was then adopted by Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]] as his empire's official religion. This school of thought was termed ''[[Vibhajyavada|Vibhajjavada]]'' ([[Pali]]), literaly "Teaching of Analysis". The version of the scriptures that had been established at the Third Council, including the vinaya, sutta and the [[abhidhamma]] commentaries (collectively known as Tripitaka), was taken to [[Sri Lanka]] by Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]]'s son, the Venerable [[Mahinda]]. There it was eventually committed to [[writing]] in the [[Pali]] language. The [[Pali Canon]] remains the only complete set of [[Nikaya]] scriptures to survive, although fragments of other versions exist.

Between the [[1st century BC]] and the [[1st century|1st century AD]], the terms [[Mahayana]] and [[Hinayana]] were first used in writing, in, for example, the [[Lotus Sutra]].

The '''Fourth Council''' was convened by the [[Kushan]] emperor [[Kanishka]], around [[100 AD]] at Jalandhar or in Kashmir, and is usually associated with the formal rise of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of this council, and it is sometimes called the “council of heretical monks”.

It is said that Kanishka gathered 500 [[Bhikkhu]]s, headed by Vasumitra, to edit the [[Tripitaka]] and make references and remarks. A set of new scriptures were approved, as well as fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine. The new scriptures, usually in the [[Gandhari]] vernacular and the [[Kharosthi]] script, were rewritten in the classical language of [[Sanskrit]], to many scholars a turning point in the propagation of Buddhist thought.

During and after the [[2nd century]], versions of the Mahayana vision became clearly defined in the works of [[Nagarjuna]], Asanga, Shantideva, [[Ashvagosha]], and Vasubandhu.

Around the [[1st century]], Buddhism spread from India through successive waves of merchants and pilgrims. It reached as far as Arabia to the west, and eastward to southeast Asia, where the first records of Buddhism date from around [[5th century|400]]. Mahayana Buddhism established a major regional center in what is today [[Afghanistan]], and from there it spread to [[Buddhism in China|China]], Korea, Mongolia, and [[Japanese Buddhism|Japan]]. In [[475]], the Indian monk [[Bodhidharma]] travelled to China and established the [[Chan]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: [[Zen]]), school. During the [[first millennium]], monks from China such as [[I Ching (monk)|Yijing]] and [[Xuanzang]] made pilgrimages to India.

At one time, different [[Turkic]] and [[Tocharian]] groups along the northern fringe of [[East Turkestan]] (modern [[Xinjiang]] in western China) adhered to the Theravada school. However, Buddhism there was supplanted by the introduction of [[Islam]] around [[11th century|1000]].

[[Vajrayana]] also evolved at this stage carried from [[India]] to [[Tibet]] around [[9th century|800]] by teachers such as [[Padmasambhava]] and [[Atisha]]. There it initially coexisted with native belief systems such as [[Bön]], but later came to largely supplant or absorb them. An early form of esoteric Vajrayana known as [[Shingon]] was also transmitted by the priest [[Kukai|Kūkai]] to [[Japan]], where it continues to be practiced.

There is still an active debate as to whether or not [[Tantra|Tantrism]] was initially developed within Buddhism or Hinduism. Buddhist literature tends to predate the later puranic Tantras, and there is some evidence to suggest that the basic structure of tantra depends upon the Mahayana Buddhist philosophical schools. However, it is thought by others that [[meditation|meditative]] [[Shiva]] sects seem to have existed from pre-[[Vedic]] times; also, from scriptural citations and study of the [[Vedas]], some say Tantra saw its philosophical basis in the mystical rites and mantras of the [[Atharva Veda]] (and later the Hindu [[Upanishad]]s and [[Mahayana]] school of Buddhism).

''See also: [[History of Buddhism]] and [[Timeline of Buddhism]]''

== Scriptures ==

The Buddhist canon of [[scripture]] is known in [[Sanskrit]] as the ''Tripi{{t}}aka'' and in [[Pali|Pāli]] as the ''[[Tipitaka|Tipi{{t}}aka]]''. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refers to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:

*The ''[[Vinaya|Vināya]] Pi{{t}}aka'', containing disciplinary rules for the [[Sangha|Sā{{NN}}gha]] of Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as a range of other texts which explain why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
*The ''Sutta Pi{{t}}aka'' (Pāli; Sanskrit: Sutra Pi{{t}}aka), containing discourses of the Buddha.
*The ''[[Abhidhamma]]'' or commentary ''Piṭaka'' (Pāli; Sanskrit: Abhidharma Piṭaka), containing a philosophical systematization of the Buddha's teaching, including a detailed analysis of Buddhist psychology.

During the first few centuries after [[Gautama Buddha]], his teachings were transmitted orally, but around the [[1st Century]] [[Common Era|CE]] they began to be written down. A given school of Buddhism will generally have its own distinctive canon of texts, which will partially overlap with those of other schools. The most notable set of texts from the early period is the [[Pali Canon]], which was preserved in [[Sri Lanka]] by the [[Theravada|Theravāda]] school. The sutras it contains are also part of the canon of every other Buddhist sect. Full versions of the original text[http://jbe.gold.ac.uk/palicanon.html] and partial English translations[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/] are now readily available on the internet.

The appearance of the [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] tradition brought with it a collection of new texts, composed in [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]], many of which were also described as actual sermons of the [[Buddha]]. These include the [[Perfection of Wisdom]] Sutras, the [[Avatamsaka Sutra|Avata{{m}}saka]], the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Vimalakirti Sutra|Vimalakīrti Sutra]], and the [[Nirvana Sutra|{{n}}irvana Sutra]]. Many of the Mahayana sutras were translated into Tibetan and [[classical Chinese]] and are also now read in the West.

The Mahāyāna canon further expanded after Buddhism was transmitted to China, where the existing texts were translated, and new texts were composed for the purpose of adapting the Indian tradition to the East Asian philosophical mindset. Many of these works are considered by modern scholars to be spurious. Other new texts, such as the [[Platform Sutra]] and the [[Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment]] did not pretend to be of Indian origin, but were widely accepted as valid scriptures on their own merits. Later writings include the [[Linji Lu]] of [[Chan]] master [[Linji]]. In the course of the development of [[Korean Buddhism]] and [[Japanese Buddhism]], further important texts were composed. These included, for example, in Korea, some of the writings of [[Jinul]], and in Japan, works such as [[Dogen]]'s [[Shobogenzo]].

Arguably the most thorough compilation of Mahayana sutras is found in the Tibetan canon. This is split into those texts attributed to be authored by the Buddha (Kanjur), and those texts which are understood to be commentaries by Indian practitioners (Tenjur). [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] practitioners also study distinctive texts such as the Buddhist [[Tantric Buddhism|tantras]].

Recently an important archaeological discovery was made, consisting of the earliest known Buddhist manuscripts, recovered from somewhere near ancient [[Gandhara]] in northwest [[Pakistan]]. These fragments, written on birch bark, are dated to the [[1st century]] and have been compared to the [[Dead Sea scrolls]] in importance. Donated to the [[British Library]] in [[1994]], they are now are being studied in a joint project at the University of Washington[http://depts.washington.edu/ebmp/].

== Relations with other faiths ==

Many [[Hinduism|Hindus]] (primarily in the northern regions of India) believe that Gautama is the 9th incarnation (see [[avatar]]) of [[Vishnu]]. In the [[Japan]]ese religion of [[Shinto|Shintoism]] he is seen as a [[Kami]]. The [[Baha'i Faith]] states he was an independent Manifestation of God. Siddhartha Gautama is thought to have been sanctified by the [[Roman Catholic]] Church as Saint [[Josaphat (saint)|Josaphat]] based on a mistaken account of his conversion to Christianity. Some [[Islam|Muslims]] believe that Gautama Buddha is [[Dhul-Kifl]], one of the prophets mentioned in the [[Qur'an]].

[[Jainism]] is an Indian school of thought that was founded prior to Buddhism. One of its two most prominent teachers, [[Mahavira|Mahāvīra]], was a senior contemporary of the Buddha whose philosophy, sometimes described as [[dynamism]] or [[vitalism]], was a blend of the earlier Jain teacher [[Parsvanatha|Pārśvanātha]]'s [[asceticism]] and the naturalistic teachings of the [[Ajivikas|Ājīvikas]]. Dialogues between the Buddha's disciples and Mahāvīra are recorded in Jain texts, and dialogues between Mahāvīra's disciples and the Buddha are included in Buddhist texts, however there is no evidence the two teachers actually met.

== Buddhism in the modern world ==

According to [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html statistics from adherents.com], estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 and 500 million, with 350 million as the most commonly cited figure.

===Modern Asia===

In northern Asia, [[Mahayana|{{Mahayana}}]] remains the most common form of Buddhism in [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and [[Vietnam]]. [[Theravada|Theravāda]] predominates in most of [[Southeast Asia]], including [[Burma]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]], as well as [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] is predominant in [[Tibet]], [[Mongolia]], and portions of [[India]].

While in the West Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhist organizations in Asia frequently are well-funded and enjoy support from the wealthy and influential. In some cases, this has led critics to charge that certain monks and organizations are too closely associated with powerful and are neglecting their duties to the poor.

===Buddhism and the West===

In the latter half of the 1800s, Buddhism (along with many other of the world's religions and philosophies) came to the attention of Western intellectuals. These included the pessimistic German philosopher [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] and the American philosopher [[Henry David Thoreau]], who translated a Buddhist sutra from French into English. Spiritual enthusiasts enjoyed what they saw as the exotic and mystical tone of the Asian traditions. At first Western Buddhology was hampered by poor translations (often translations of translations), but soon Western scholars began to learn Asian languages and translate Asian texts. In [[1899]] [[Gordon Douglas]] became the first Westerner to be ordained as a Buddhist monk.

The first Buddhists to arrive in the [[United States]] were Chinese. Hired as cheap labor for the [[railroads]] and other expanding industries, they established temples in their settlements along the rail lines.

The [[Buddhist Society, London]] was founded by [[Christmas Humphreys]] in [[1924]].

The cultural re-evaluations of the [[hippie]] generation in the late [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]] included a renewed interest in Buddhism, proclaimed by some of them as a natural path to awareness, and enlightenment. Many people, including celebrities, traveled to Asia in pursuit of gurus and ancient wisdom. Buddhism had become the fastest-growing religion in Australia and many other Western nations by the 1990s, in contrast to the steady decline of traditional western beliefs (see [[Christianity]]).

A distinctive feature of Buddhism in the West has been the emergence of groups that, while drawing on traditional Buddhism, attempt to create a new form of Buddhist practice. Examples include the Shambala movement, founded by [[Chögyam Trungpa]], and the [[Friends of the Western Buddhist Order]], founded by [[Sangharakshita]].

==See also==

===Buddhism===
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]
* [[Buddhist terms and concepts]]
* [[Buddhist texts]]
* [[List of books related to Buddhism]]
* [[List of Buddhists]]
* [[Cultural elements of Buddhism]]

===Related systems===
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Taoism]]
* [[Hinduism]]

==External links==
* [http://www.e-sangha.com/ E-Sangha Buddhism Portal]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net/ BuddhaNet]
* [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/buddhist.htm Critical Resources: Buddha & Buddhism]
* [http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet]
* [http://www.acmuller.net/ddb Digital Dictionary of Buddhism]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/bfaq.html FAQ about Buddhism from Access to Insight]
* [http://www.orientalia.org/dic3.html International Dictionary of Buddhism]
* [http://www.urbandharma.org/ UrbanDharma]
* [http://www.buddhistview.com/ Buddhist Views]

==References==

This text was slightly edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism Buddhism]''. Retrieved Sept. 28, 2004.

Buddhism

2004-09-29T09:13:05Z

Phos:

'''Buddhism''' is a [[religion]] and [[Buddhist philosophy|philosophy]] based on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha|Siddhārtha Gautama]] ([[Sanskrit]]; in [[Pali|Pāli]], ''Siddhattha Gotama''), who lived between approximately [[560s BCE|563]] and [[483 BCE]]. Originating in [[India]], Buddhism gradually spread throughout Asia to [[Central Asia]], [[Tibet]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Southeast Asia]], as well as the East Asian countries of [[China]], [[Mongolia]], [[Korea]], and [[Japan]].

Buddhism teaches followers to perform good and wholesome actions, to avoid bad and harmful actions, and to purify and train the mind. The aim of these practices is to put an end to suffering and achieve enlightenment, either individually or for all beings. [[Enlightenment_(Buddhism)|Enlightenment]] leads to [[Nirvana]] (Sanskrit: "extinguishment")

Buddhist morality is underpinned by the principles of harmlessness and moderation. Mental training focuses on moral discipline (''[[sila]]''), meditative concentration (''[[samadhi]]''), and [[wisdom]] (''prajñā'').

While Buddhism does not deny the existence of supernatural beings (indeed, many are discussed in Buddhist scripture), it does not ascribe power for creation, salvation or judgement to them. Like humans, they are regarded as having the power to affect worldly events, and so some Buddhist schools associate with them via ritual.

{{buddhism}}

== What is a Buddha? ==

''Buddha'' is a word in the ancient [[India|Indian]] languages [[Pali|Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]] which means "one who has become awake". It is derived from the verbal root "√budh", meaning "to awaken."

The word "Buddha" denotes not just a single religious teacher who lived in a particular epoch, but a type of person, of which there have been many instances in the course of cosmic time. (As an analogy, the term "American President" refers not just to one man, but to everyone who has ever held the office of the American presidency.) The Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, then, is simply one member in the spiritual lineage of Buddhas, which stretches back into the dim recesses of the past and forward into the distant horizons of the future.

Gautama did not claim any divine status for himself, nor did he assert that he was inspired by a god or gods. He claimed to be not a personal saviour, but a teacher to guide those who choose to listen. A Buddha is any human being who has fully awakened to the true nature of existence, whose insight has totally transformed him or her beyond birth, death, and subsequent rebirth, and who is enabled to help others achieve the same enlightenment.

The principles by which a person can be led to enlightenment are known as the [[Buddhadharma]], or simply the Dharma. [[Dharma]] in this sense of the rather complex term means, "law, doctrine, or truth." Anyone can attain what the Buddha attained regardless of age, [[sex|gender]], or [[caste]]. Indeed, Buddhists believe there have been many solitary buddhas (Pāli pacceka-buddha; Sanskrit: [[pratyekabuddha]]) who achieved enlightenment on their own but did not go on to teach others. According to one of the stories in the [[Sutta Nipata|Sutta Nipāta]], the Buddha, too, was afraid to teach humans because he despaired of their limited capacity for understanding. The [[Vedic]] (early [[Hindu]]) god [[Indra]], however, interceded, and requested that he teach despite this. That the historical Buddha did so is thus a mark of special compassion.

== Origins ==

Legend has it that the Buddha to be, [[Siddhartha Gautama|Siddhārtha Gautama]], was born around the [[6th century BCE]]. His birthplace is said to be [[Lumbini]] in the kingdom of [[Magadha]], in what is now Nepal. His father was a king, and Siddhārtha lived in luxury, being spared all hardship.

[[Image:Sarnath.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This engraving depicts the Buddha's first sermon, which according to the [[Dhammacakka Pavattana Sutta]] took place in the Deer Park at [[Sarnath]] in northern India.]]

The legends say that a seer predicted that Siddhartha would become either a great king or a great holy man; because of this, the king tried to make sure that Siddhartha never had any cause for dissatisfaction with his life, as that might drive him toward a spiritual path. Nevertheless, at the age of 29, while being escorted by his attendant Channa, he came across what has become known as the [[Four Passing Sights]]: an old crippled man, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and finally a wandering holy man. These ''four sights'', as they are called, led him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness and death came to everyone, not only once but repeated for life after life in succession for uncounted aeons. He decided to abandon his worldly life, leaving behind his wife and child, his privilege, rank, [[caste]], and to take up the life of a wandering holy man in search of the answer to the problem of birth, old age, sickness, and death. It is said that he stole out of the house in the dead of night, pausing for one last look at his family, and did not return there for a very long time.

Indian holy men (''sādhus''), in those days just as today, engaged in a variety of [[ascetic]] practices designed to "mortify" the flesh. This belief was taken to an extreme in the faith of [[Jainism]]. It was thought that by enduring pain and suffering, the [[atman|ātman]] (Sanskrit; Pāli: atta) or "[[soul]]" became free from the round of rebirth into pain and sorrow. Siddhārtha proved adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no answer to his problem and, leaving behind his teachers, he and a small group of companions set out to take their austerities even further. He became a skeleton covered with skin, surviving on a single grain of rice per day, and practiced holding his breath. After nearly starving himself to death with no success (some sources claim that he nearly drowned), Siddhārtha began to reconsider his path. Then he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state in which time seemed to stand still, and which was blissful and refreshing. Perhaps this would provide an alternative to the dead end of self-mortification?

Taking a little buttermilk from a passing goatherd, he found a large tree (now called the ''[[Bodhi tree]]'') under which he would be shaded from the heat of the mid-summer sun, and set to [[meditation|meditating]]. This new way of practicing began to bear fruit. His mind became concentrated and pure, and then, six years after he began his quest, he attained [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]], and became a [[Buddha]].

Historically speaking, there are questions about this story. First, there are other narrative versions of his life that do not exactly match - one has it that the Buddha leaves home in the "prime of his youth", his parents weeping and wailing all the while. Second, we know from other sources that the country of [[Magadha]], where he was born, was an [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] [[republic]] at that time, so there was no royal family of which to speak. However, regardless of the details of his early life, the evidence strongly indicates that the Buddha was indeed a historical person living in approximately the same time and place in which he is traditionally placed.

''See also: [[Earliest Buddhism]]''

==Principles of Buddhism==

[[image:ac.buddhists.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Buddhists praying at the temple [[Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep]], near [[Chiang Mai]], [[Thailand]].]]

===The Three Jewels===

Buddhists seek refuge in what are often referred to as the ''Three Jewels'', ''Triple Gem'' or ''Triple Jewel''. These are the [[Buddha]], the [[Dharma]], and the "noble" (Sanskrit: ''arya'') [[Sangha]] or community of monks and nuns who have become enlightened. While it is impossible to escape one's [[karma]] or the effects caused by previous thoughts, words and deeds, it is possible to avoid the suffering that comes from it by becoming enlightened. In this way, [[dharma]] offers a refuge. [[Dharma]], used in the sense of the Buddha's teachings, provides a raft and is thus a temporary refuge while entering and crossing the river. However, the real refuge is on the other side of the river.

To one who is seeking to become enlightened, taking refuge constitutes a continuing commitment to pursuing enlightenment and following in the footsteps of the people who have followed the path to enlightenment before. It contains an element of confidence that enlightenment is in fact a refuge, a supreme resort. Many Buddhists take the refuges each day, sometimes more than once in order to remind themselves of what they are doing and to direct their resolve inwardly towards liberation.

Although Buddhists concur that taking refuge should be undertaken with proper motivation (complete liberation) and an understanding of the objects of refuge, the Indian scholar [[Atisha]] identified that in practice there are many different motives found for taking refuge. His idea was to use these differing motivations as a key to resolving any apparent conflicts between all the Buddha's teachings without depending upon some form of syncresis that would cause as much confusion as it attempted to alleviate.

In the [[11th century]], ''Lamp for the Path'' by Atisha, and in the subsequent Lamrim tradition as elaborated by [[Tsongkhapa]], the several motives for refuge are enumerated as follows, typically introduced using the concept of the "scope" (level of motivation) of a practitioner:

* Worldly scope is taking refuge to improve the lot of this life
* Low scope is taking refuge to gain high rebirth and avoid the low realms
* Middle scope is taking refuge to achieve Nirvana
* High scope is taking refuge to achieve Buddhahood
* Highest scope is also sometimes included, which is taking refuge to achieve Buddhahood in this life.

''See also: [[Three Jewels]]''

===The Four Noble Truths===
The Buddha taught that life was dissatisfactory because of craving, but that this condition was curable by following the eightfold path. This teaching is called the [[four noble truths]]:

# ''[[Dukkha]]'': All worldly life is unsatisfactory, disjointed, containing suffering.
# ''Samudaya'': There is a cause of suffering, which is attachment or desire (''tanha'') rooted in ignorance.
# ''Nirodha'': There is an end of suffering, which is Nirvana.
# ''Marga'': There is a path that leads out of suffering, known as the Noble Eightfold Path.

===The Noble Eightfold Path===
[[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpg|frame|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]]

In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain lifestyle or path be followed which consists of:
#''Right Understanding''
#''Right Thought''
#''Right Speech''
#''Right Action''
#''Right Livelihood''
#''Right Effort''
#''Right Mindfulness''
#''Right Concentration''

Sometimes in the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages which the practitioner moves through, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, but it is more usual to view the stages of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development.

The Eightfold Path essentially consists of meditation, following the precepts, and cultivating the positive converse of the precepts (e.g. benefiting living beings is the converse of the first precept of harmlessness). The Path may also be thought of as a the way of developing [[sila|{{SH}}īla]], meaning mental and moral discipline.

''See also: [[Noble Eightfold Path]]''

===The Five Precepts===
Buddhists undertake certain precepts as aids on the path to coming into contact with ultimate reality. Laypeople generally undertake five precepts. The five precepts are:

# I undertake the precept to refrain from harming living creatures (killing).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from [[sexual misconduct]].
# I undertake the precept to refrain from incorrect speech (lying, harsh language, slander, idle chit-chat).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness.

In some schools of Buddhism, serious lay people or aspiring monks take an additional three to five ethical precepts, and some of the five precepts are strengthened. For example, the precept pertaining to [[sexual misconduct]] becomes a precept of celibacy; the fourth precept, which pertains to incorrect speech, is expanded to four: lying, harsh language, slander, and idle chit-chat. Monks and nuns in most countries also vow to follow the 227 [[patimokkha]] rules.

''See also: [[Pancasila]]''

=== The three marks of conditioned existence ===

According to the Buddhist tradition all phenomena ([[dharma#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]) are marked by three characteristics, sometimes referred to as the ''Dharma Seals'':

*[[Anatta]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman): All beings have no self. In Indian philosophy, the concept of a self is called ātman (that is, "[[Soul#Buddhist_beliefs|soul]]" or metaphysical self), which refers to an unchanging, permanent essence. This concept and the related concept of [[Brahman|Bra{{h}}man]], the Vedantic [[monism|monistic]] ideal, which was regarded as an ultimate [[Atman|ātman]] for all beings, were indispensable for mainstream Indian metaphysics, logic, and science; for all apparent things there had to be an underlying and persistent reality, akin to a [[Platonic form]]. The Buddha rejected the concept of ātman, emphasizing not permanence but changeability. If the soul were permanent and unchanging--if all existence has its root in something fixed--then change becomes philosophically difficult to account for (this is similar to [[Zeno's paradoxes]]). This problem was analyzed extensively by [[Nagarjuna|{{nagarjuna}}]].
*[[Anicca]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: anitya): All things and experiences are inconstant, unsteady, and impermanent. Everything is made up of parts, and is dependent on the right conditions for its existence. Everything is in flux, and so conditions are constantly changing. Things are constantly coming into being, and ceasing to be. Nothing lasts.
*[[Dukkha]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: du{{h}}kha): because we fail to truly grasp the first two conditions, we suffer. We desire a lasting satisfaction, but look for it amongst constantly changing phenomena. We perceive a self, and act to enhance that self by pursuing pleasure, and seek to prolong pleasure when it too is fleeting.

It is by realizing (not merely understanding intellectually, but making real in one's experience) the three marks of conditioned existence that one develops [[Prajna|Praj{{NNN}}ā]], which is the antidote to the ignorance that lies at the root of all suffering.

''See also: [[three marks of existence]]''

===Other principles and practices===

*[[Meditation]] or [[dhyana|dhyāna]] of some form is a common practice in most if not all schools of Buddhism, for the clergy if not the laity.
*Central to Buddhist doctrine and practice is the law of ''[[karma]]'' and ''[[vipaka]]''; action and its fruition, which happens within the dynamic of [[dependent origination]] (''pratītya-samutpāda''). Actions which result in positive retribution (happiness) are defined as skillful or good, while actions that produce negative results (suffering) are called unskillful or bad actions. These actions are expressed by the way of mind, body or speech. Some actions bring instant retribution while the results of other actions may not appear until a future lifetime.
*[[Rebirth (Buddhist)|Rebirth]], which is closely related to the law of karma. An action in this life may not give fruit or reaction until the next life time. This being said, action in a past life takes effect in this one, making a chain of existence. The full realization of the absence of an eternal self or soul (the doctrine of anatta (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman) breaks this cycle of birth and death ([[samsara|sa{{m}}sāra]]).

===Vegetarianism===

The [[Pancasila|first lay precept]] in Buddhism prohibits killing. Many see this as implying that Buddhists should not eat the meat of animals. However, this is not necessarily the case. The Buddha made distinction between killing an animal and consumption of meat, stressing that it is immoral conduct that makes one impure, not the food one eats. Monks in ancient India were expected to receive all of their food by begging, and so theoretically should have no control at all over their diet. During the Buddha's time, there was no general rule requiring monks to refrain from eating meat. In fact, at one point the Buddha specifically refused to institute vegetarianisn and the [[Pali Canon]] records the Buddha himself eating meat on several occasions. There were, however, rules prohibiting certain types of meat, such as human, leopard or elephant meat. Monks are also prohibited from consuming meat if the monk witnessed the animal's death or knows that it was killed specifically for him. This rule was applied to commercial purchase of meat in the case of a general who sent a servant to purchase meat specifically to feed the Buddha. Therefore, eating commercially purchased meat is not prohibited.

On the other hand, certain [[Mahayana sutra]]s make a stronger argument against eating meat. In the [[Nirvana Sutra]], the Buddha states that "the eating of meat extinguishes the seed of great compassion". A long passage in the [[Lankavatara Sutra]] shows the Buddha weighing strongly in favor of vegetarianism. And several other Mahayana Vyana prohibit consumption of meat.

In the modern world, attitudes toward vegetarianism vary by location. In the Theravada countries of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka, monks are bound by the vinaya to accept almost any food that is offered to them, often including meat, while in China and Vietnam, monks are expected to eat no meat. In Japan and Korea, some monks practice vegetarianism, and most will do so at least when training at a monastery, but otherwise they typically do eat meat. In Tibet, where [[vegetable]] [[nutrition]] was historically very scarce, and the adopted vinaya was the [[Nikaya]] [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]], vegetarianism is very rare, although the [[Dalai Lama]] has recently made several comments encouraging its adoption. In the West, of course, a wide variety of practices are followed. Lay Buddhists generally follow dietary rules less rigorously than monks.

== The three main branches of Buddhism ==

[[Image:Ac.buddhas.jpg|thumb|300px|Several [[images of the Buddha]], on display at [[Wat Cheddi Luang]], [[Chiang Mai]], [[Thailand]].]]

Buddhism has evolved into myriad schools that can be roughly grouped into three types: Nikaya, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Of the Nikaya schools, only the Theravada survives. Each branch sees itself as representing the true, original teachings of the Buddha, although some schools believe that the dialectic nature of Buddhism allows its format, terminology, and techniques to adapt over time in response to changing circumstances.

The [[Theravada]] school, whose name means "Doctrine of the Elders", bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon]]. This is considered to be the oldest of the surviving [[Tripitaka|Buddhist canons]], and its sutras are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism. [[Theravada]] is the only surviving representative of the historical [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikaya branch]]. Nikaya Buddhism and consequently Theravada are sometimes referred to as [[Hinayana]] or "lesser vehicle", although this is generally considered to be impolite. Theravada is practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Thailand, and portions of Vietnam and Malaysia.

The [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]], or "Great Vehicle" branch, emphasizes universal compassion and the selfless ideal of the [[bodhisattva]]. In addition to the [[Nikaya]] scriptures, Mahāyāna schools recognize all or part of a genre of scriptures that were first put in writing around [[1 CE]]. These later scriptures were written in Sanskrit and are concerned with the purpose of achieving Buddhahood by following the path of the bodhisattva over the course of what is often described as [[kalpa|countless eons]] of time. Because of this immense timeframe, many Mahāyāna schools accept the idea of working towards rebirth in a [[Pure Land]], which is not enlightenment in itself but which is a highly conducive environment for working toward enlightenment. Mahāyāna Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, and most of Vietnam.

The [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism) shares many of the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in as little as three years. In addition to the Theravada and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of texts that include the Buddhist Tantras. Vajrayana is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, [[Kalmykia]], areas of India, and, to a limited extent, in China and Japan.

== Buddhism after the Buddha ==

Buddhism spread slowly in India until the powerful [[Maurya]] emperor [[Asoka]] converted to it and actively supported it. His promotion led to construction of Buddhist religious sites and missionary efforts that spread the faith into the countries listed at the beginning of the article.

After about 500, Buddhism waned in India, becoming a very minor religion after about 1200. This was partially due to [[Islam|Muslim]] invasions, and partially due to [[Hinduism]] absorbing Buddhist principles. It remained in the rest of the world, although in Central Asia and later Indonesia it was mostly replaced by Islam. In China and Japan, it mixed with the native beliefs of [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]], and [[Shinto]], respectively. In Tibet, the Vajrayana lineage was preserved after it disappeared in India.

=== History of the schools ===

Three months after the passing of Gautama Buddha, The '''First Council''' was held at Rajagaha by his immediate disciples who had attained [[Arhat|Arahantship]] (Enlightenment). Maha Kassapa, the most respected and elderly monk, presided at the Council. Only two sections the ''Dhamma'' and the ''Vinaya'' were recited at the First Council. All [[Arhat|Arahants]] unanimously agree that no disciplinary rule laid down by the Buddha should be changed, and no new ones should be introduced. At this point, no conflict about what the Buddha taught is known to have occurred, so the teachings were divided into various parts and each was assigned to an elder and his pupils to commit to memory. These groups of people often cross-checked with each other to ensure that no omissions or additions were made.

At the '''Second Council''', one hundred years later, it was not the dharma that was called into question but the monks' code of rules or [[vinaya]]. This resulted in the formation of the Sthaviravādin and Mahāsanghika schools. Opinions differ on the cause of the split: the Sthaviravādins described their opponents as lax monks who had ceased to follow all the vinaya rules, while the Mahāsanghikas argued that the Buddha had never intended a rigid adherence to all the minor rules. After this initial division, more were to follow. Schism in early Buddhism was typically not on points of doctrine (orthodoxy), but in the area of practice (orthopraxy). So if two schools shared a vinaya, but were in dispute over doctrinal matters, it was not unlikely that they would continue to practice together. However, if one group disputed the vinaya of another, this would often prevent common practice.

In the [[3rd century BC]] the '''Third Council''' was convened under the patronage of Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]], primarily for the purpose of establishing an official orthodoxy. At the council, small groups raised questions the specifics of the vinaya and the interpretation of doctrine. The chairman of the council, Moggaliputta Tissa, compiled a book called the ''[[Kathavatthu]]'', which was meant to refute these arguments. The council sided with Moggaliputta and his version of Buddhism as orthodox; it was then adopted by Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]] as his empire's official religion. This school of thought was termed ''[[Vibhajyavada|Vibhajjavada]]'' ([[Pali]]), literaly "Teaching of Analysis". The version of the scriptures that had been established at the Third Council, including the vinaya, sutta and the [[abhidhamma]] commentaries (collectively known as Tripitaka), was taken to [[Sri Lanka]] by Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]]'s son, the Venerable [[Mahinda]]. There it was eventually committed to [[writing]] in the [[Pali]] language. The [[Pali Canon]] remains the only complete set of [[Nikaya]] scriptures to survive, although fragments of other versions exist.

Between the [[1st century BC]] and the [[1st century|1st century AD]], the terms [[Mahayana]] and [[Hinayana]] were first used in writing, in, for example, the [[Lotus Sutra]].

The '''Fourth Council''' was convened by the [[Kushan]] emperor [[Kanishka]], around [[100 AD]] at Jalandhar or in Kashmir, and is usually associated with the formal rise of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of this council, and it is sometimes called the “council of heretical monks”.

It is said that Kanishka gathered 500 [[Bhikkhu]]s, headed by Vasumitra, to edit the [[Tripitaka]] and make references and remarks. A set of new scriptures were approved, as well as fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine. The new scriptures, usually in the [[Gandhari]] vernacular and the [[Kharosthi]] script, were rewritten in the classical language of [[Sanskrit]], to many scholars a turning point in the propagation of Buddhist thought.

During and after the [[2nd century]], versions of the Mahayana vision became clearly defined in the works of [[Nagarjuna]], Asanga, Shantideva, [[Ashvagosha]], and Vasubandhu.

Around the [[1st century]], Buddhism spread from India through successive waves of merchants and pilgrims. It reached as far as Arabia to the west, and eastward to southeast Asia, where the first records of Buddhism date from around [[5th century|400]]. Mahayana Buddhism established a major regional center in what is today [[Afghanistan]], and from there it spread to [[Buddhism in China|China]], Korea, Mongolia, and [[Japanese Buddhism|Japan]]. In [[475]], the Indian monk [[Bodhidharma]] travelled to China and established the [[Chan]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: [[Zen]]), school. During the [[first millennium]], monks from China such as [[I Ching (monk)|Yijing]] and [[Xuanzang]] made pilgrimages to India.

At one time, different [[Turkic]] and [[Tocharian]] groups along the northern fringe of [[East Turkestan]] (modern [[Xinjiang]] in western China) adhered to the Theravada school. However, Buddhism there was supplanted by the introduction of [[Islam]] around [[11th century|1000]].

[[Vajrayana]] also evolved at this stage carried from [[India]] to [[Tibet]] around [[9th century|800]] by teachers such as [[Padmasambhava]] and [[Atisha]]. There it initially coexisted with native belief systems such as [[Bön]], but later came to largely supplant or absorb them. An early form of esoteric Vajrayana known as [[Shingon]] was also transmitted by the priest [[Kukai|Kūkai]] to [[Japan]], where it continues to be practiced.

There is still an active debate as to whether or not [[Tantra|Tantrism]] was initially developed within Buddhism or Hinduism. Buddhist literature tends to predate the later puranic Tantras, and there is some evidence to suggest that the basic structure of tantra depends upon the Mahayana Buddhist philosophical schools. However, it is thought by others that [[meditation|meditative]] [[Shiva]] sects seem to have existed from pre-[[Vedic]] times; also, from scriptural citations and study of the [[Vedas]], some say Tantra saw its philosophical basis in the mystical rites and mantras of the [[Atharva Veda]] (and later the Hindu [[Upanishad]]s and [[Mahayana]] school of Buddhism).

''See also: [[History of Buddhism]] and [[Timeline of Buddhism]]''

== Scriptures ==

The Buddhist canon of [[scripture]] is known in [[Sanskrit]] as the ''Tripi{{t}}aka'' and in [[Pali|Pāli]] as the ''[[Tipitaka|Tipi{{t}}aka]]''. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refers to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:

*The ''[[Vinaya|Vināya]] Pi{{t}}aka'', containing disciplinary rules for the [[Sangha|Sā{{NN}}gha]] of Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as a range of other texts which explain why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
*The ''Sutta Pi{{t}}aka'' (Pāli; Sanskrit: Sutra Pi{{t}}aka), containing discourses of the Buddha.
*The ''[[Abhidhamma]]'' or commentary ''Piṭaka'' (Pāli; Sanskrit: Abhidharma Piṭaka), containing a philosophical systematization of the Buddha's teaching, including a detailed analysis of Buddhist psychology.

During the first few centuries after [[Gautama Buddha]], his teachings were transmitted orally, but around the [[1st Century]] [[Common Era|CE]] they began to be written down. A given school of Buddhism will generally have its own distinctive canon of texts, which will partially overlap with those of other schools. The most notable set of texts from the early period is the [[Pali Canon]], which was preserved in [[Sri Lanka]] by the [[Theravada|Theravāda]] school. The sutras it contains are also part of the canon of every other Buddhist sect. Full versions of the original text[http://jbe.gold.ac.uk/palicanon.html] and partial English translations[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/] are now readily available on the internet.

The appearance of the [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] tradition brought with it a collection of new texts, composed in [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]], many of which were also described as actual sermons of the [[Buddha]]. These include the [[Perfection of Wisdom]] Sutras, the [[Avatamsaka Sutra|Avata{{m}}saka]], the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Vimalakirti Sutra|Vimalakīrti Sutra]], and the [[Nirvana Sutra|{{n}}irvana Sutra]]. Many of the Mahayana sutras were translated into Tibetan and [[classical Chinese]] and are also now read in the West.

The Mahāyāna canon further expanded after Buddhism was transmitted to China, where the existing texts were translated, and new texts were composed for the purpose of adapting the Indian tradition to the East Asian philosophical mindset. Many of these works are considered by modern scholars to be spurious. Other new texts, such as the [[Platform Sutra]] and the [[Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment]] did not pretend to be of Indian origin, but were widely accepted as valid scriptures on their own merits. Later writings include the [[Linji Lu]] of [[Chan]] master [[Linji]]. In the course of the development of [[Korean Buddhism]] and [[Japanese Buddhism]], further important texts were composed. These included, for example, in Korea, some of the writings of [[Jinul]], and in Japan, works such as [[Dogen]]'s [[Shobogenzo]].

Arguably the most thorough compilation of Mahayana sutras is found in the Tibetan canon. This is split into those texts attributed to be authored by the Buddha (Kanjur), and those texts which are understood to be commentaries by Indian practitioners (Tenjur). [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] practitioners also study distinctive texts such as the Buddhist [[Tantric Buddhism|tantras]].

Recently an important archaeological discovery was made, consisting of the earliest known Buddhist manuscripts, recovered from somewhere near ancient [[Gandhara]] in northwest [[Pakistan]]. These fragments, written on birch bark, are dated to the [[1st century]] and have been compared to the [[Dead Sea scrolls]] in importance. Donated to the [[British Library]] in [[1994]], they are now are being studied in a joint project at the University of Washington[http://depts.washington.edu/ebmp/].

== Relations with other faiths ==

Many [[Hinduism|Hindus]] (primarily in the northern regions of India) believe that Gautama is the 9th incarnation (see [[avatar]]) of [[Vishnu]]. In the [[Japan]]ese religion of [[Shinto|Shintoism]] he is seen as a [[Kami]]. The [[Baha'i Faith]] states he was an independent Manifestation of God. Siddhartha Gautama is thought to have been sanctified by the [[Roman Catholic]] Church as Saint [[Josaphat (saint)|Josaphat]] based on a mistaken account of his conversion to Christianity. Some [[Islam|Muslims]] believe that Gautama Buddha is [[Dhul-Kifl]], one of the prophets mentioned in the [[Qur'an]].

[[Jainism]] is an Indian school of thought that was founded prior to Buddhism. One of its two most prominent teachers, [[Mahavira|Mahāvīra]], was a senior contemporary of the Buddha whose philosophy, sometimes described as [[dynamism]] or [[vitalism]], was a blend of the earlier Jain teacher [[Parsvanatha|Pārśvanātha]]'s [[asceticism]] and the naturalistic teachings of the [[Ajivikas|Ājīvikas]]. Dialogues between the Buddha's disciples and Mahāvīra are recorded in Jain texts, and dialogues between Mahāvīra's disciples and the Buddha are included in Buddhist texts, however there is no evidence the two teachers actually met.

== Buddhism in the modern world ==

According to [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html statistics from adherents.com], estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 and 500 million, with 350 million as the most commonly cited figure.

===Modern Asia===

In northern Asia, [[Mahayana|{{Mahayana}}]] remains the most common form of Buddhism in [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and [[Vietnam]]. [[Theravada|Theravāda]] predominates in most of [[Southeast Asia]], including [[Burma]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]], as well as [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] is predominant in [[Tibet]], [[Mongolia]], and portions of [[India]].

While in the West Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhist organizations in Asia frequently are well-funded and enjoy support from the wealthy and influential. In some cases, this has led critics to charge that certain monks and organizations are too closely associated with powerful and are neglecting their duties to the poor.

===Buddhism and the West===

In the latter half of the 1800s, Buddhism (along with many other of the world's religions and philosophies) came to the attention of Western intellectuals. These included the pessimistic German philosopher [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] and the American philosopher [[Henry David Thoreau]], who translated a Buddhist sutra from French into English. Spiritual enthusiasts enjoyed what they saw as the exotic and mystical tone of the Asian traditions. At first Western Buddhology was hampered by poor translations (often translations of translations), but soon Western scholars began to learn Asian languages and translate Asian texts. In [[1899]] [[Gordon Douglas]] became the first Westerner to be ordained as a Buddhist monk.

The first Buddhists to arrive in the [[United States]] were Chinese. Hired as cheap labor for the [[railroads]] and other expanding industries, they established temples in their settlements along the rail lines.

The [[Buddhist Society, London]] was founded by [[Christmas Humphreys]] in [[1924]].

The cultural re-evaluations of the [[hippie]] generation in the late [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]] included a renewed interest in Buddhism, proclaimed by some of them as a natural path to awareness, and enlightenment. Many people, including celebrities, traveled to Asia in pursuit of gurus and ancient wisdom. Buddhism had become the fastest-growing religion in Australia and many other Western nations by the 1990s, in contrast to the steady decline of traditional western beliefs (see [[Christianity]]).

A distinctive feature of Buddhism in the West has been the emergence of groups that, while drawing on traditional Buddhism, attempt to create a new form of Buddhist practice. Examples include the Shambala movement, founded by [[Chögyam Trungpa]], and the [[Friends of the Western Buddhist Order]], founded by [[Sangharakshita]].

==See also==

===Buddhism===
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]
* [[Buddhist terms and concepts]]
* [[Buddhist texts]]
* [[List of books related to Buddhism]]
* [[List of Buddhists]]
* [[Cultural elements of Buddhism]]

===Related systems===
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Taoism]]
* [[Hinduism]]

==External links==
* [http://www.e-sangha.com/ E-Sangha Buddhism Portal]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net/ BuddhaNet]
* [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/buddhist.htm Critical Resources: Buddha & Buddhism]
* [http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet]
* [http://www.acmuller.net/ddb Digital Dictionary of Buddhism]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/bfaq.html FAQ about Buddhism from Access to Insight]
* [http://www.orientalia.org/dic3.html International Dictionary of Buddhism]
* [http://www.urbandharma.org/ UrbanDharma]
* [http://www.buddhistview.com/ Buddhist Views]

==References==

This text was slightly edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism Buddhism]''. Retrieved Sept. 28, 2004.

Buddhism

2004-09-29T09:12:45Z

Phos:

[[image:Buddha_lantau.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Statues of Buddha such as this, the [[Tian Tan Buddha]] statue in [[Hong Kong]], remind followers to practice right living.]]

'''Buddhism''' is a [[religion]] and [[Buddhist philosophy|philosophy]] based on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha|Siddhārtha Gautama]] ([[Sanskrit]]; in [[Pali|Pāli]], ''Siddhattha Gotama''), who lived between approximately [[560s BCE|563]] and [[483 BCE]]. Originating in [[India]], Buddhism gradually spread throughout Asia to [[Central Asia]], [[Tibet]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Southeast Asia]], as well as the East Asian countries of [[China]], [[Mongolia]], [[Korea]], and [[Japan]].

Buddhism teaches followers to perform good and wholesome actions, to avoid bad and harmful actions, and to purify and train the mind. The aim of these practices is to put an end to suffering and achieve enlightenment, either individually or for all beings. [[Enlightenment_(Buddhism)|Enlightenment]] leads to [[Nirvana]] (Sanskrit: "extinguishment")

Buddhist morality is underpinned by the principles of harmlessness and moderation. Mental training focuses on moral discipline (''[[sila]]''), meditative concentration (''[[samadhi]]''), and [[wisdom]] (''prajñā'').

While Buddhism does not deny the existence of supernatural beings (indeed, many are discussed in Buddhist scripture), it does not ascribe power for creation, salvation or judgement to them. Like humans, they are regarded as having the power to affect worldly events, and so some Buddhist schools associate with them via ritual.

{{buddhism}}

== What is a Buddha? ==

''Buddha'' is a word in the ancient [[India|Indian]] languages [[Pali|Pāli]] and [[Sanskrit]] which means "one who has become awake". It is derived from the verbal root "√budh", meaning "to awaken."

The word "Buddha" denotes not just a single religious teacher who lived in a particular epoch, but a type of person, of which there have been many instances in the course of cosmic time. (As an analogy, the term "American President" refers not just to one man, but to everyone who has ever held the office of the American presidency.) The Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, then, is simply one member in the spiritual lineage of Buddhas, which stretches back into the dim recesses of the past and forward into the distant horizons of the future.

Gautama did not claim any divine status for himself, nor did he assert that he was inspired by a god or gods. He claimed to be not a personal saviour, but a teacher to guide those who choose to listen. A Buddha is any human being who has fully awakened to the true nature of existence, whose insight has totally transformed him or her beyond birth, death, and subsequent rebirth, and who is enabled to help others achieve the same enlightenment.

The principles by which a person can be led to enlightenment are known as the [[Buddhadharma]], or simply the Dharma. [[Dharma]] in this sense of the rather complex term means, "law, doctrine, or truth." Anyone can attain what the Buddha attained regardless of age, [[sex|gender]], or [[caste]]. Indeed, Buddhists believe there have been many solitary buddhas (Pāli pacceka-buddha; Sanskrit: [[pratyekabuddha]]) who achieved enlightenment on their own but did not go on to teach others. According to one of the stories in the [[Sutta Nipata|Sutta Nipāta]], the Buddha, too, was afraid to teach humans because he despaired of their limited capacity for understanding. The [[Vedic]] (early [[Hindu]]) god [[Indra]], however, interceded, and requested that he teach despite this. That the historical Buddha did so is thus a mark of special compassion.

== Origins ==

Legend has it that the Buddha to be, [[Siddhartha Gautama|Siddhārtha Gautama]], was born around the [[6th century BCE]]. His birthplace is said to be [[Lumbini]] in the kingdom of [[Magadha]], in what is now Nepal. His father was a king, and Siddhārtha lived in luxury, being spared all hardship.

[[Image:Sarnath.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This engraving depicts the Buddha's first sermon, which according to the [[Dhammacakka Pavattana Sutta]] took place in the Deer Park at [[Sarnath]] in northern India.]]

The legends say that a seer predicted that Siddhartha would become either a great king or a great holy man; because of this, the king tried to make sure that Siddhartha never had any cause for dissatisfaction with his life, as that might drive him toward a spiritual path. Nevertheless, at the age of 29, while being escorted by his attendant Channa, he came across what has become known as the [[Four Passing Sights]]: an old crippled man, a sick man, a decaying corpse, and finally a wandering holy man. These ''four sights'', as they are called, led him to the realization that birth, old age, sickness and death came to everyone, not only once but repeated for life after life in succession for uncounted aeons. He decided to abandon his worldly life, leaving behind his wife and child, his privilege, rank, [[caste]], and to take up the life of a wandering holy man in search of the answer to the problem of birth, old age, sickness, and death. It is said that he stole out of the house in the dead of night, pausing for one last look at his family, and did not return there for a very long time.

Indian holy men (''sādhus''), in those days just as today, engaged in a variety of [[ascetic]] practices designed to "mortify" the flesh. This belief was taken to an extreme in the faith of [[Jainism]]. It was thought that by enduring pain and suffering, the [[atman|ātman]] (Sanskrit; Pāli: atta) or "[[soul]]" became free from the round of rebirth into pain and sorrow. Siddhārtha proved adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. However, he found no answer to his problem and, leaving behind his teachers, he and a small group of companions set out to take their austerities even further. He became a skeleton covered with skin, surviving on a single grain of rice per day, and practiced holding his breath. After nearly starving himself to death with no success (some sources claim that he nearly drowned), Siddhārtha began to reconsider his path. Then he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state in which time seemed to stand still, and which was blissful and refreshing. Perhaps this would provide an alternative to the dead end of self-mortification?

Taking a little buttermilk from a passing goatherd, he found a large tree (now called the ''[[Bodhi tree]]'') under which he would be shaded from the heat of the mid-summer sun, and set to [[meditation|meditating]]. This new way of practicing began to bear fruit. His mind became concentrated and pure, and then, six years after he began his quest, he attained [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]], and became a [[Buddha]].

Historically speaking, there are questions about this story. First, there are other narrative versions of his life that do not exactly match - one has it that the Buddha leaves home in the "prime of his youth", his parents weeping and wailing all the while. Second, we know from other sources that the country of [[Magadha]], where he was born, was an [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] [[republic]] at that time, so there was no royal family of which to speak. However, regardless of the details of his early life, the evidence strongly indicates that the Buddha was indeed a historical person living in approximately the same time and place in which he is traditionally placed.

''See also: [[Earliest Buddhism]]''

==Principles of Buddhism==

[[image:ac.buddhists.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Buddhists praying at the temple [[Wat Phrathat Doi Suthep]], near [[Chiang Mai]], [[Thailand]].]]

===The Three Jewels===

Buddhists seek refuge in what are often referred to as the ''Three Jewels'', ''Triple Gem'' or ''Triple Jewel''. These are the [[Buddha]], the [[Dharma]], and the "noble" (Sanskrit: ''arya'') [[Sangha]] or community of monks and nuns who have become enlightened. While it is impossible to escape one's [[karma]] or the effects caused by previous thoughts, words and deeds, it is possible to avoid the suffering that comes from it by becoming enlightened. In this way, [[dharma]] offers a refuge. [[Dharma]], used in the sense of the Buddha's teachings, provides a raft and is thus a temporary refuge while entering and crossing the river. However, the real refuge is on the other side of the river.

To one who is seeking to become enlightened, taking refuge constitutes a continuing commitment to pursuing enlightenment and following in the footsteps of the people who have followed the path to enlightenment before. It contains an element of confidence that enlightenment is in fact a refuge, a supreme resort. Many Buddhists take the refuges each day, sometimes more than once in order to remind themselves of what they are doing and to direct their resolve inwardly towards liberation.

Although Buddhists concur that taking refuge should be undertaken with proper motivation (complete liberation) and an understanding of the objects of refuge, the Indian scholar [[Atisha]] identified that in practice there are many different motives found for taking refuge. His idea was to use these differing motivations as a key to resolving any apparent conflicts between all the Buddha's teachings without depending upon some form of syncresis that would cause as much confusion as it attempted to alleviate.

In the [[11th century]], ''Lamp for the Path'' by Atisha, and in the subsequent Lamrim tradition as elaborated by [[Tsongkhapa]], the several motives for refuge are enumerated as follows, typically introduced using the concept of the "scope" (level of motivation) of a practitioner:

* Worldly scope is taking refuge to improve the lot of this life
* Low scope is taking refuge to gain high rebirth and avoid the low realms
* Middle scope is taking refuge to achieve Nirvana
* High scope is taking refuge to achieve Buddhahood
* Highest scope is also sometimes included, which is taking refuge to achieve Buddhahood in this life.

''See also: [[Three Jewels]]''

===The Four Noble Truths===
The Buddha taught that life was dissatisfactory because of craving, but that this condition was curable by following the eightfold path. This teaching is called the [[four noble truths]]:

# ''[[Dukkha]]'': All worldly life is unsatisfactory, disjointed, containing suffering.
# ''Samudaya'': There is a cause of suffering, which is attachment or desire (''tanha'') rooted in ignorance.
# ''Nirodha'': There is an end of suffering, which is Nirvana.
# ''Marga'': There is a path that leads out of suffering, known as the Noble Eightfold Path.

===The Noble Eightfold Path===
[[Image:Konchog-wangdu.jpg|frame|Buddhist monk Geshe Konchog Wangdu reads Mahayana sutras from an old woodblock copy of the Tibetan Kanjur.]]

In order to fully understand the noble truths and investigate whether they were in fact true, Buddha recommended that a certain lifestyle or path be followed which consists of:
#''Right Understanding''
#''Right Thought''
#''Right Speech''
#''Right Action''
#''Right Livelihood''
#''Right Effort''
#''Right Mindfulness''
#''Right Concentration''

Sometimes in the [[Pali Canon|Pāli Canon]] the Eightfold Path is spoken of as being a progressive series of stages which the practitioner moves through, the culmination of one leading to the beginning of another, but it is more usual to view the stages of the 'Path' as requiring simultaneous development.

The Eightfold Path essentially consists of meditation, following the precepts, and cultivating the positive converse of the precepts (e.g. benefiting living beings is the converse of the first precept of harmlessness). The Path may also be thought of as a the way of developing [[sila|{{SH}}īla]], meaning mental and moral discipline.

''See also: [[Noble Eightfold Path]]''

===The Five Precepts===
Buddhists undertake certain precepts as aids on the path to coming into contact with ultimate reality. Laypeople generally undertake five precepts. The five precepts are:

# I undertake the precept to refrain from harming living creatures (killing).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from taking that which is not freely given (stealing).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from [[sexual misconduct]].
# I undertake the precept to refrain from incorrect speech (lying, harsh language, slander, idle chit-chat).
# I undertake the precept to refrain from intoxicants which lead to loss of mindfulness.

In some schools of Buddhism, serious lay people or aspiring monks take an additional three to five ethical precepts, and some of the five precepts are strengthened. For example, the precept pertaining to [[sexual misconduct]] becomes a precept of celibacy; the fourth precept, which pertains to incorrect speech, is expanded to four: lying, harsh language, slander, and idle chit-chat. Monks and nuns in most countries also vow to follow the 227 [[patimokkha]] rules.

''See also: [[Pancasila]]''

=== The three marks of conditioned existence ===

According to the Buddhist tradition all phenomena ([[dharma#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]) are marked by three characteristics, sometimes referred to as the ''Dharma Seals'':

*[[Anatta]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman): All beings have no self. In Indian philosophy, the concept of a self is called ātman (that is, "[[Soul#Buddhist_beliefs|soul]]" or metaphysical self), which refers to an unchanging, permanent essence. This concept and the related concept of [[Brahman|Bra{{h}}man]], the Vedantic [[monism|monistic]] ideal, which was regarded as an ultimate [[Atman|ātman]] for all beings, were indispensable for mainstream Indian metaphysics, logic, and science; for all apparent things there had to be an underlying and persistent reality, akin to a [[Platonic form]]. The Buddha rejected the concept of ātman, emphasizing not permanence but changeability. If the soul were permanent and unchanging--if all existence has its root in something fixed--then change becomes philosophically difficult to account for (this is similar to [[Zeno's paradoxes]]). This problem was analyzed extensively by [[Nagarjuna|{{nagarjuna}}]].
*[[Anicca]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: anitya): All things and experiences are inconstant, unsteady, and impermanent. Everything is made up of parts, and is dependent on the right conditions for its existence. Everything is in flux, and so conditions are constantly changing. Things are constantly coming into being, and ceasing to be. Nothing lasts.
*[[Dukkha]] (Pāli; Sanskrit: du{{h}}kha): because we fail to truly grasp the first two conditions, we suffer. We desire a lasting satisfaction, but look for it amongst constantly changing phenomena. We perceive a self, and act to enhance that self by pursuing pleasure, and seek to prolong pleasure when it too is fleeting.

It is by realizing (not merely understanding intellectually, but making real in one's experience) the three marks of conditioned existence that one develops [[Prajna|Praj{{NNN}}ā]], which is the antidote to the ignorance that lies at the root of all suffering.

''See also: [[three marks of existence]]''

===Other principles and practices===

*[[Meditation]] or [[dhyana|dhyāna]] of some form is a common practice in most if not all schools of Buddhism, for the clergy if not the laity.
*Central to Buddhist doctrine and practice is the law of ''[[karma]]'' and ''[[vipaka]]''; action and its fruition, which happens within the dynamic of [[dependent origination]] (''pratītya-samutpāda''). Actions which result in positive retribution (happiness) are defined as skillful or good, while actions that produce negative results (suffering) are called unskillful or bad actions. These actions are expressed by the way of mind, body or speech. Some actions bring instant retribution while the results of other actions may not appear until a future lifetime.
*[[Rebirth (Buddhist)|Rebirth]], which is closely related to the law of karma. An action in this life may not give fruit or reaction until the next life time. This being said, action in a past life takes effect in this one, making a chain of existence. The full realization of the absence of an eternal self or soul (the doctrine of anatta (Pāli; Sanskrit: anātman) breaks this cycle of birth and death ([[samsara|sa{{m}}sāra]]).

===Vegetarianism===

The [[Pancasila|first lay precept]] in Buddhism prohibits killing. Many see this as implying that Buddhists should not eat the meat of animals. However, this is not necessarily the case. The Buddha made distinction between killing an animal and consumption of meat, stressing that it is immoral conduct that makes one impure, not the food one eats. Monks in ancient India were expected to receive all of their food by begging, and so theoretically should have no control at all over their diet. During the Buddha's time, there was no general rule requiring monks to refrain from eating meat. In fact, at one point the Buddha specifically refused to institute vegetarianisn and the [[Pali Canon]] records the Buddha himself eating meat on several occasions. There were, however, rules prohibiting certain types of meat, such as human, leopard or elephant meat. Monks are also prohibited from consuming meat if the monk witnessed the animal's death or knows that it was killed specifically for him. This rule was applied to commercial purchase of meat in the case of a general who sent a servant to purchase meat specifically to feed the Buddha. Therefore, eating commercially purchased meat is not prohibited.

On the other hand, certain [[Mahayana sutra]]s make a stronger argument against eating meat. In the [[Nirvana Sutra]], the Buddha states that "the eating of meat extinguishes the seed of great compassion". A long passage in the [[Lankavatara Sutra]] shows the Buddha weighing strongly in favor of vegetarianism. And several other Mahayana Vyana prohibit consumption of meat.

In the modern world, attitudes toward vegetarianism vary by location. In the Theravada countries of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka, monks are bound by the vinaya to accept almost any food that is offered to them, often including meat, while in China and Vietnam, monks are expected to eat no meat. In Japan and Korea, some monks practice vegetarianism, and most will do so at least when training at a monastery, but otherwise they typically do eat meat. In Tibet, where [[vegetable]] [[nutrition]] was historically very scarce, and the adopted vinaya was the [[Nikaya]] [[Sarvastivada|Sarvāstivāda]], vegetarianism is very rare, although the [[Dalai Lama]] has recently made several comments encouraging its adoption. In the West, of course, a wide variety of practices are followed. Lay Buddhists generally follow dietary rules less rigorously than monks.

== The three main branches of Buddhism ==

[[Image:Ac.buddhas.jpg|thumb|300px|Several [[images of the Buddha]], on display at [[Wat Cheddi Luang]], [[Chiang Mai]], [[Thailand]].]]

Buddhism has evolved into myriad schools that can be roughly grouped into three types: Nikaya, Mahayana, and Vajrayana. Of the Nikaya schools, only the Theravada survives. Each branch sees itself as representing the true, original teachings of the Buddha, although some schools believe that the dialectic nature of Buddhism allows its format, terminology, and techniques to adapt over time in response to changing circumstances.

The [[Theravada]] school, whose name means "Doctrine of the Elders", bases its practice and doctrine exclusively on the [[Pali Canon]]. This is considered to be the oldest of the surviving [[Tripitaka|Buddhist canons]], and its sutras are accepted as authentic in every branch of Buddhism. [[Theravada]] is the only surviving representative of the historical [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikaya branch]]. Nikaya Buddhism and consequently Theravada are sometimes referred to as [[Hinayana]] or "lesser vehicle", although this is generally considered to be impolite. Theravada is practiced today in Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Thailand, and portions of Vietnam and Malaysia.

The [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]], or "Great Vehicle" branch, emphasizes universal compassion and the selfless ideal of the [[bodhisattva]]. In addition to the [[Nikaya]] scriptures, Mahāyāna schools recognize all or part of a genre of scriptures that were first put in writing around [[1 CE]]. These later scriptures were written in Sanskrit and are concerned with the purpose of achieving Buddhahood by following the path of the bodhisattva over the course of what is often described as [[kalpa|countless eons]] of time. Because of this immense timeframe, many Mahāyāna schools accept the idea of working towards rebirth in a [[Pure Land]], which is not enlightenment in itself but which is a highly conducive environment for working toward enlightenment. Mahāyāna Buddhism is practiced today in China, Japan, Korea, and most of Vietnam.

The [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] or "Diamond Vehicle" (also referred to as [[Tantra|Tantric]] Buddhism) shares many of the basic concepts of Mahāyāna, but also includes a vast array of spiritual techniques designed to enhance Buddhist practice. One component of the Vajrayāna is harnessing psycho-physical energy as a means of developing profoundly powerful states of concentration and awareness. These profound states are in turn to be used as an efficient path to Buddhahood. Using these techniques, it is claimed that a practitioner can achieve Buddhahood in as little as three years. In addition to the Theravada and Mahāyāna scriptures, Vajrayāna Buddhists recognise a large body of texts that include the Buddhist Tantras. Vajrayana is practiced today mainly in Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, [[Kalmykia]], areas of India, and, to a limited extent, in China and Japan.

== Buddhism after the Buddha ==

Buddhism spread slowly in India until the powerful [[Maurya]] emperor [[Asoka]] converted to it and actively supported it. His promotion led to construction of Buddhist religious sites and missionary efforts that spread the faith into the countries listed at the beginning of the article.

After about 500, Buddhism waned in India, becoming a very minor religion after about 1200. This was partially due to [[Islam|Muslim]] invasions, and partially due to [[Hinduism]] absorbing Buddhist principles. It remained in the rest of the world, although in Central Asia and later Indonesia it was mostly replaced by Islam. In China and Japan, it mixed with the native beliefs of [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]], and [[Shinto]], respectively. In Tibet, the Vajrayana lineage was preserved after it disappeared in India.

=== History of the schools ===

Three months after the passing of Gautama Buddha, The '''First Council''' was held at Rajagaha by his immediate disciples who had attained [[Arhat|Arahantship]] (Enlightenment). Maha Kassapa, the most respected and elderly monk, presided at the Council. Only two sections the ''Dhamma'' and the ''Vinaya'' were recited at the First Council. All [[Arhat|Arahants]] unanimously agree that no disciplinary rule laid down by the Buddha should be changed, and no new ones should be introduced. At this point, no conflict about what the Buddha taught is known to have occurred, so the teachings were divided into various parts and each was assigned to an elder and his pupils to commit to memory. These groups of people often cross-checked with each other to ensure that no omissions or additions were made.

At the '''Second Council''', one hundred years later, it was not the dharma that was called into question but the monks' code of rules or [[vinaya]]. This resulted in the formation of the Sthaviravādin and Mahāsanghika schools. Opinions differ on the cause of the split: the Sthaviravādins described their opponents as lax monks who had ceased to follow all the vinaya rules, while the Mahāsanghikas argued that the Buddha had never intended a rigid adherence to all the minor rules. After this initial division, more were to follow. Schism in early Buddhism was typically not on points of doctrine (orthodoxy), but in the area of practice (orthopraxy). So if two schools shared a vinaya, but were in dispute over doctrinal matters, it was not unlikely that they would continue to practice together. However, if one group disputed the vinaya of another, this would often prevent common practice.

In the [[3rd century BC]] the '''Third Council''' was convened under the patronage of Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]], primarily for the purpose of establishing an official orthodoxy. At the council, small groups raised questions the specifics of the vinaya and the interpretation of doctrine. The chairman of the council, Moggaliputta Tissa, compiled a book called the ''[[Kathavatthu]]'', which was meant to refute these arguments. The council sided with Moggaliputta and his version of Buddhism as orthodox; it was then adopted by Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]] as his empire's official religion. This school of thought was termed ''[[Vibhajyavada|Vibhajjavada]]'' ([[Pali]]), literaly "Teaching of Analysis". The version of the scriptures that had been established at the Third Council, including the vinaya, sutta and the [[abhidhamma]] commentaries (collectively known as Tripitaka), was taken to [[Sri Lanka]] by Emperor [[Asoka|Ashoka]]'s son, the Venerable [[Mahinda]]. There it was eventually committed to [[writing]] in the [[Pali]] language. The [[Pali Canon]] remains the only complete set of [[Nikaya]] scriptures to survive, although fragments of other versions exist.

Between the [[1st century BC]] and the [[1st century|1st century AD]], the terms [[Mahayana]] and [[Hinayana]] were first used in writing, in, for example, the [[Lotus Sutra]].

The '''Fourth Council''' was convened by the [[Kushan]] emperor [[Kanishka]], around [[100 AD]] at Jalandhar or in Kashmir, and is usually associated with the formal rise of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism does not recognize the authenticity of this council, and it is sometimes called the “council of heretical monks”.

It is said that Kanishka gathered 500 [[Bhikkhu]]s, headed by Vasumitra, to edit the [[Tripitaka]] and make references and remarks. A set of new scriptures were approved, as well as fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine. The new scriptures, usually in the [[Gandhari]] vernacular and the [[Kharosthi]] script, were rewritten in the classical language of [[Sanskrit]], to many scholars a turning point in the propagation of Buddhist thought.

During and after the [[2nd century]], versions of the Mahayana vision became clearly defined in the works of [[Nagarjuna]], Asanga, Shantideva, [[Ashvagosha]], and Vasubandhu.

Around the [[1st century]], Buddhism spread from India through successive waves of merchants and pilgrims. It reached as far as Arabia to the west, and eastward to southeast Asia, where the first records of Buddhism date from around [[5th century|400]]. Mahayana Buddhism established a major regional center in what is today [[Afghanistan]], and from there it spread to [[Buddhism in China|China]], Korea, Mongolia, and [[Japanese Buddhism|Japan]]. In [[475]], the Indian monk [[Bodhidharma]] travelled to China and established the [[Chan]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: [[Zen]]), school. During the [[first millennium]], monks from China such as [[I Ching (monk)|Yijing]] and [[Xuanzang]] made pilgrimages to India.

At one time, different [[Turkic]] and [[Tocharian]] groups along the northern fringe of [[East Turkestan]] (modern [[Xinjiang]] in western China) adhered to the Theravada school. However, Buddhism there was supplanted by the introduction of [[Islam]] around [[11th century|1000]].

[[Vajrayana]] also evolved at this stage carried from [[India]] to [[Tibet]] around [[9th century|800]] by teachers such as [[Padmasambhava]] and [[Atisha]]. There it initially coexisted with native belief systems such as [[Bön]], but later came to largely supplant or absorb them. An early form of esoteric Vajrayana known as [[Shingon]] was also transmitted by the priest [[Kukai|Kūkai]] to [[Japan]], where it continues to be practiced.

There is still an active debate as to whether or not [[Tantra|Tantrism]] was initially developed within Buddhism or Hinduism. Buddhist literature tends to predate the later puranic Tantras, and there is some evidence to suggest that the basic structure of tantra depends upon the Mahayana Buddhist philosophical schools. However, it is thought by others that [[meditation|meditative]] [[Shiva]] sects seem to have existed from pre-[[Vedic]] times; also, from scriptural citations and study of the [[Vedas]], some say Tantra saw its philosophical basis in the mystical rites and mantras of the [[Atharva Veda]] (and later the Hindu [[Upanishad]]s and [[Mahayana]] school of Buddhism).

''See also: [[History of Buddhism]] and [[Timeline of Buddhism]]''

== Scriptures ==

The Buddhist canon of [[scripture]] is known in [[Sanskrit]] as the ''Tripi{{t}}aka'' and in [[Pali|Pāli]] as the ''[[Tipitaka|Tipi{{t}}aka]]''. These terms literally mean "three baskets" and refers to the three main divisions of the canon, which are:

*The ''[[Vinaya|Vināya]] Pi{{t}}aka'', containing disciplinary rules for the [[Sangha|Sā{{NN}}gha]] of Buddhist [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s, as well as a range of other texts which explain why and how rules were instituted, supporting material, and doctrinal clarification.
*The ''Sutta Pi{{t}}aka'' (Pāli; Sanskrit: Sutra Pi{{t}}aka), containing discourses of the Buddha.
*The ''[[Abhidhamma]]'' or commentary ''Piṭaka'' (Pāli; Sanskrit: Abhidharma Piṭaka), containing a philosophical systematization of the Buddha's teaching, including a detailed analysis of Buddhist psychology.

During the first few centuries after [[Gautama Buddha]], his teachings were transmitted orally, but around the [[1st Century]] [[Common Era|CE]] they began to be written down. A given school of Buddhism will generally have its own distinctive canon of texts, which will partially overlap with those of other schools. The most notable set of texts from the early period is the [[Pali Canon]], which was preserved in [[Sri Lanka]] by the [[Theravada|Theravāda]] school. The sutras it contains are also part of the canon of every other Buddhist sect. Full versions of the original text[http://jbe.gold.ac.uk/palicanon.html] and partial English translations[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/] are now readily available on the internet.

The appearance of the [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] tradition brought with it a collection of new texts, composed in [[Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit]], many of which were also described as actual sermons of the [[Buddha]]. These include the [[Perfection of Wisdom]] Sutras, the [[Avatamsaka Sutra|Avata{{m}}saka]], the [[Lotus Sutra]], the [[Vimalakirti Sutra|Vimalakīrti Sutra]], and the [[Nirvana Sutra|{{n}}irvana Sutra]]. Many of the Mahayana sutras were translated into Tibetan and [[classical Chinese]] and are also now read in the West.

The Mahāyāna canon further expanded after Buddhism was transmitted to China, where the existing texts were translated, and new texts were composed for the purpose of adapting the Indian tradition to the East Asian philosophical mindset. Many of these works are considered by modern scholars to be spurious. Other new texts, such as the [[Platform Sutra]] and the [[Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment]] did not pretend to be of Indian origin, but were widely accepted as valid scriptures on their own merits. Later writings include the [[Linji Lu]] of [[Chan]] master [[Linji]]. In the course of the development of [[Korean Buddhism]] and [[Japanese Buddhism]], further important texts were composed. These included, for example, in Korea, some of the writings of [[Jinul]], and in Japan, works such as [[Dogen]]'s [[Shobogenzo]].

Arguably the most thorough compilation of Mahayana sutras is found in the Tibetan canon. This is split into those texts attributed to be authored by the Buddha (Kanjur), and those texts which are understood to be commentaries by Indian practitioners (Tenjur). [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] practitioners also study distinctive texts such as the Buddhist [[Tantric Buddhism|tantras]].

Recently an important archaeological discovery was made, consisting of the earliest known Buddhist manuscripts, recovered from somewhere near ancient [[Gandhara]] in northwest [[Pakistan]]. These fragments, written on birch bark, are dated to the [[1st century]] and have been compared to the [[Dead Sea scrolls]] in importance. Donated to the [[British Library]] in [[1994]], they are now are being studied in a joint project at the University of Washington[http://depts.washington.edu/ebmp/].

== Relations with other faiths ==

Many [[Hinduism|Hindus]] (primarily in the northern regions of India) believe that Gautama is the 9th incarnation (see [[avatar]]) of [[Vishnu]]. In the [[Japan]]ese religion of [[Shinto|Shintoism]] he is seen as a [[Kami]]. The [[Baha'i Faith]] states he was an independent Manifestation of God. Siddhartha Gautama is thought to have been sanctified by the [[Roman Catholic]] Church as Saint [[Josaphat (saint)|Josaphat]] based on a mistaken account of his conversion to Christianity. Some [[Islam|Muslims]] believe that Gautama Buddha is [[Dhul-Kifl]], one of the prophets mentioned in the [[Qur'an]].

[[Jainism]] is an Indian school of thought that was founded prior to Buddhism. One of its two most prominent teachers, [[Mahavira|Mahāvīra]], was a senior contemporary of the Buddha whose philosophy, sometimes described as [[dynamism]] or [[vitalism]], was a blend of the earlier Jain teacher [[Parsvanatha|Pārśvanātha]]'s [[asceticism]] and the naturalistic teachings of the [[Ajivikas|Ājīvikas]]. Dialogues between the Buddha's disciples and Mahāvīra are recorded in Jain texts, and dialogues between Mahāvīra's disciples and the Buddha are included in Buddhist texts, however there is no evidence the two teachers actually met.

== Buddhism in the modern world ==

According to [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html statistics from adherents.com], estimates of the number of Buddhists vary between 230 and 500 million, with 350 million as the most commonly cited figure.

===Modern Asia===

In northern Asia, [[Mahayana|{{Mahayana}}]] remains the most common form of Buddhism in [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and [[Vietnam]]. [[Theravada|Theravāda]] predominates in most of [[Southeast Asia]], including [[Burma]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]], as well as [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Vajrayana|Vajrayāna]] is predominant in [[Tibet]], [[Mongolia]], and portions of [[India]].

While in the West Buddhism is often seen as exotic and progressive, in the East Buddhism is regarded as familiar and part of the establishment. Buddhist organizations in Asia frequently are well-funded and enjoy support from the wealthy and influential. In some cases, this has led critics to charge that certain monks and organizations are too closely associated with powerful and are neglecting their duties to the poor.

===Buddhism and the West===

In the latter half of the 1800s, Buddhism (along with many other of the world's religions and philosophies) came to the attention of Western intellectuals. These included the pessimistic German philosopher [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] and the American philosopher [[Henry David Thoreau]], who translated a Buddhist sutra from French into English. Spiritual enthusiasts enjoyed what they saw as the exotic and mystical tone of the Asian traditions. At first Western Buddhology was hampered by poor translations (often translations of translations), but soon Western scholars began to learn Asian languages and translate Asian texts. In [[1899]] [[Gordon Douglas]] became the first Westerner to be ordained as a Buddhist monk.

The first Buddhists to arrive in the [[United States]] were Chinese. Hired as cheap labor for the [[railroads]] and other expanding industries, they established temples in their settlements along the rail lines.

The [[Buddhist Society, London]] was founded by [[Christmas Humphreys]] in [[1924]].

The cultural re-evaluations of the [[hippie]] generation in the late [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]] included a renewed interest in Buddhism, proclaimed by some of them as a natural path to awareness, and enlightenment. Many people, including celebrities, traveled to Asia in pursuit of gurus and ancient wisdom. Buddhism had become the fastest-growing religion in Australia and many other Western nations by the 1990s, in contrast to the steady decline of traditional western beliefs (see [[Christianity]]).

A distinctive feature of Buddhism in the West has been the emergence of groups that, while drawing on traditional Buddhism, attempt to create a new form of Buddhist practice. Examples include the Shambala movement, founded by [[Chögyam Trungpa]], and the [[Friends of the Western Buddhist Order]], founded by [[Sangharakshita]].

==See also==

===Buddhism===
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]
* [[Buddhist terms and concepts]]
* [[Buddhist texts]]
* [[List of books related to Buddhism]]
* [[List of Buddhists]]
* [[Cultural elements of Buddhism]]

===Related systems===
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Taoism]]
* [[Hinduism]]

==External links==
* [http://www.e-sangha.com/ E-Sangha Buddhism Portal]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net/ BuddhaNet]
* [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/buddhist.htm Critical Resources: Buddha & Buddhism]
* [http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet]
* [http://www.acmuller.net/ddb Digital Dictionary of Buddhism]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/bfaq.html FAQ about Buddhism from Access to Insight]
* [http://www.orientalia.org/dic3.html International Dictionary of Buddhism]
* [http://www.urbandharma.org/ UrbanDharma]
* [http://www.buddhistview.com/ Buddhist Views]

==References==

This text was slightly edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism Buddhism]''. Retrieved Sept. 28, 2004.

Bible

2004-09-29T09:08:51Z

Phos:

The '''Bible''' is the primary sacred [[scripture]] of both the [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] religions. These scriptures are compilations of what were originally separate documents (called "[[book]]s") written over a long period of time. The first selection, which later formed the Jewish Bible ([[Tanakh]]) consisted of 39 books. Later additions after the birth of Jesus made up the [[New Testament]] made up of 27 Books.

==Overview==
The Jewish, or [[Hebrew Bible]], consists of the five books of [[Moses]] (the [[Torah]] or [[Pentateuch]]), a section called "Prophets" ([[Neviim]]), and a third section called "Writings" (also [[Ketuvim]] or Hagiographa). The term "[[Tanakh]]" is a Hebrew acronym formed from these three names. Though the Hebrew Bible is predominantly in [[Biblical Hebrew]], it has some small portions in [[Biblical Aramaic]].

The Christian Bible contains the entirety of the [[Septuagint]] (Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures from the second century B.C., called by Christians the [[Old Testament]]), along with a set of later writings known as the [[New Testament]]. Most [[Protestant]]s) omit some of these works, roughly following the second century A.D. Jewish canon called the Tanakh, but with some reorderings. Within Christianity, there is not complete agreement on what the Christian Bible contains, that is, on the [[Biblical canon]]. However, this only extends to a few books — there is no dispute as to the majority of [[books of the Bible]].

The various books of the New Testament were written in [[koine Greek]]. Early Christian Bibles used texts of the Old Testament dependent on the Greek Septuagint, which differs in places from the primarily Hebrew [[Masoretic text]]. Most modern [[translation]]s of the Old Testament are based primarily on the Masoretic text. Some modern editions of the Old Testament also adopt different readings found in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]. For more information, see the entry on [[Bible translations]].

Synopsis: The Hebrew scriptures of the Bible - portions of which contain stories traditionally held to be historical accounts of much of the early history of the Hebrew Nation - teach that there is one [[God]], [[Jehovah]], "Creator of Heaven and Earth" who created Man "in his own image", and details the relationship between Man and his Creator.

For Christians, the Bible continues - with the advent of [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] - the story begun in the Hebrew scriptures, and is both a primary source of religious doctrine and a foundation for their spiritual beliefs. Some religious sects, notably, several of the Protestant Christian sects, believe the Bible to be the ultimate and authoritative guide in all spiritual matters, by a principle referred to as [[sola scriptura]].

==Definition of Biblical terms==
The [[English language|English]] word "Bible" means "book of books" (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "books", ''biblia:''
'' '''βιβλια''' '' ). A book of the Bible is an established group of writings. For example, the book of [[Psalms]] consists of 150 songs (151 in the Septuagint), while the book of [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]] is a half-page letter. [[Biblical canon|Canon]] refers to the accepted books of the Bible differentiated from other sacred writings not accepted as part of the canon, which are not accepted as part of the Bible. Catholics and Orthodox call writings that they do not accept [[Apocrypha]]; Protestants call those writings they do not accept but that Catholics and Orthodox do Apocrypha or [[Deuterocanonical]], and call other writings that neither accepts [[Pseudepigrapha]]. The ''Protestant Bible'' consists of 66 books. The Roman Catholic version, including the Deuterocanonical books, counts altogether 76 books, while the Eastern Orthodox version includes 77 or 78. (4 Maccabees is sometimes included in an appendix, sometimes not.)

==Description of the Bible==
The [[Tanakh| Hebrew Bible (Tanakh)]] is divided into 3 sections, the Law ([[Torah]]), the Prophets, the Writings. The translated, modified and re-ordered version of the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] is called the [[Old Testament]] in the Christian Bible. The Christian Bible includes the Old Testament plus the New Testament, which chronicles the doings of [[Jesus]] and the reaction to them. The New Testament is divided into the four [[Gospel]]s, History (Acts of the Apostles), the Letters to Christian churches by [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] and other [[apostle]]s, and the [[Book of Revelation]].

See [[Books of the Bible]]

==Bible Canon - Which books are biblical?==

In addition to the diverse traditions concerning which books belong in the Canon of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible, modern scholarship proposes alternative views concerning the authenticity of books, and of texts within books. See the entries on the [[Biblical canon]], [[Higher criticism]] and [[Textual criticism]].

==Biblical versions and translations==
In scholarly writing, ancient translations are frequently referred to as 'versions', with the term 'translation' being reserved for medieval or modern translations. Information about Bible versions is given below, while [[Bible translations]] can be found on a separate page.

===Tanakh===
The oldest books of the Bible are the [[Pentateuch]], also known as the [[Torah]]. They are written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and are also titled the 'Books of Moses'. Traditionally Judaism and Christianity held that these books were actually written by the prophet [[Moses]], but many today believe that the current form of the Torah came about by a redactor bringing together several earlier, distinct sources. This idea is called the [[documentary hypothesis]].

In addition to the Torah, as noted above, the Jewish scriptures include the [[Neviim|Nevi'im]] ("prophets") and the [[Ketuvim]] ("writings"), the combined collection being designated by the Hebrew acronym "Tanakh".

The original text of the Tanakh was in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], with some portions in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]. From the 800s to the 1400s rabbinic Jewish scholars known as the Masoretes compared the text of all known Biblical manuscripts, in an effort to create a unified and standardized text; a series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as [[Masoretic Text]]s (MT). The Masoretes also added vowel points (called nikud) to the text, since the original text only contained consonants. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation, since words can differ only in their vowels, and thus the text can vary depending upon the choice of vowels to be inserted. In antiquity there were other variant readings which were popular, some of which have survived in the Samaritan Pentateuch, the [[Dead Sea scrolls]], and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient translations to other languages.

By the beginning of the common era, most Jews no longer spoke Hebrew, but spoke [[Greek language|Greek]] or [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] instead. Thus they made translations or paraphrases into these languages. The most important of the translations into the Greek was the [[Septuagint]], though other translations were made as well. The Septuagint contains several additional passages, and whole additional books, compared to what was eventually compiled as the masoretic texts. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or variants that the Masoretes did not accept. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than was once thought. While there are no surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew text on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that it was a different textual tradition than the one that eventually became the basis for the Masoretic texts.

The Jews also produced non-literal translations or paraphrases known as [[targum]]s, primarily in Aramaic. They frequently expanded on the text with additional details taken from Jewish oral tradition.

Early Christians produced translations of the Hebrew Bible into several languages; their biblical text was the Septuagint, which was translated by a number of Jews into Greek over several decades starting in the second century B.C.E. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important to the Church in the West, while in the Greek-speaking East, they continued to use the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.

The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or [[Vetus Latina]]. Exactly who translated it is unknown, but internal evidence suggests it is the product of several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included the Septuagint additions.

As a translation the Old Latin was far from ideal, and so [[Jerome]] was commissioned to produce the [[Vulgate]] translation as a replacement. Jerome based his translation on the Hebrew rather than the Septuagint. He was of the opinion that the Septuagint additions were of doubtful value, but he included them due to the demands of the church. He did not, however, translate the additional books anew; the Vulgate for these books is identical to the Old Latin. The Vulgate became the official translation of the [[Catholicism| Roman Catholic]] church.

===New Testament===
The majority of scholars believe the [[New Testament]] was originally composed in Greek. There are a number of different textual traditions of the New Testament. The three main traditions are sometimes called the [[Western text-type]], the [[Alexandrian text-type]], and [[Byzantine text-type]], and together they comprise the majority of New Testament manuscripts. There are also several ancient translations into other languages, most important of which are the Syriac (including the [[Peshitta]] and the [[Diatessaron]] gospel harmony) and the Latin (both the Vetus Latina and the Vulgate).

A minority of scholars believe the Greek New Testament is actually a translation of an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] original. Of these, some accept the so called "[[Syriac]]" [[Peshitta]] as the original, while others take a more critical approach to reconstructing the original text. For more on this view, see [[Aramaic primacy]].

The earliest critical edition of the New Testament is the '[[Textus Receptus]]' (Latin for 'received text') compiled by the humanist [[Desiderius Erasmus]]. It is largely Byzantine in character. The Textus Receptus was for many centuries the standard critical edition of the New Testament, only losing that position after the discovery of manuscripts such as the [[Codex Sinaiticus]] and the [[Codex Vaticanus]]. There are some who believe that many or all of the changes introduced by later critical editions are incorrect, and that the Textus Receptus is still the best critical edition available. A similar but distinct argument is sometimes made for the [[Majority Text]].

For a more detailed account of the New Testament's development, see the relevant section of [[Biblical canon]].

===Chapters and verses ===
The [[masoretic]] Hebrew text contains verse endings as an important feature. According to the Jewish talmudic tradition, the verse endings are of ancient origin. The [[masoretic]] textual tradition also contains section endings called ''parashiyot'', which are indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section") or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the ''parashiyot'' is usually thematic. The ''parashiyot'' are not numbered.

In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian [[masoretic]] manuscripts such as the [[Aleppo codex]]) an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed Hebrew Bibles. In this system, the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must ''always'' begin at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections ''never'' start at the beginning of a new line.

Another related feature of the [[masoretic]] text is the division of the ''sedarim''. This division is not thematic, but is rather almost entirely based upon the ''quantity'' of text.

The Byzantines also introduced a chapter division of sorts, called ''Kephalaia''. It is not identical to the present chapters.

The current division of the Bible into chapters, however, and the verse numbers within the chapters, have no basis in any ancient textual tradition. Rather, they are medieval Christian inventions. They were later adopted by the Jews too as technical references within the Hebrew text. Such technical references became crucial to medieval rabbis in the historical context of forced debates with Christian clergy (who used the chapter and verse numbers), especially in late medieval Spain. Chapter divisions were first used by Jews in a 1330 manuscript, and for a printed edition in 1516. However, for the past generation most Jewish editions of the complete [[Hebrew Bible]] have made a systematic effort to relegate chapter and verse numbers to the margins of the text.

The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has often elicited severe criticism (from both traditionalists and modern scholars alike). Critics charge that the text is often divided into chapters in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate points within the narrative, and that it encourages citing passages out of context, in effect turning the Bible into a kind of textual quarry for clerical citations. Nevertheless, even the critics admit that the chapter divisions and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.

[[Stephen Langton]] is reputed to have been the first person to put the chapter divisions into a Vulgate edition of the Bible in 1205. They came into the Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the 1400s. [[Robert Estienne]] (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chaper; his verse numbers entered printed editions in 1565 (New Testament) and 1571 (Hebrew Bible).[http://www.fuller.edu/ministry/berean/chs_vss.htm][http://www.theexaminer.org/history/chap6.htm]

== Biblical interpretation==
(Jewish, Christian, Islamic opinion of the text. Eastern. Western, influence of philosophy, fundamentalism, patristic interpretation, medieval interpretation, Reformation, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, inerrancy, biblical theology, inspiration, rationalism, translations, hermeneutics )

A wealth of additional stories and legends amplifying the accounts in the [[Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible) can be found in the Jewish genre of rabbinical exegesis known as [[Midrash]].

Throughout antiquity and the medieval periods, allegorical methods of interpretation were popular. The earliest use of these was probably [[Philo Judaeus]], who attempted to make Jewish halakah palatable to the Greek mind by interpreting it as symbolising philosophical doctrines. Allegorical interpretation was adopted by Christians, and continued in popularity until a reaction against it during the Reformation, and it has not since found much favour in [[Western Christianity]].

The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] generally follows a patristic method of interpretation, attempting to interpret scripture in the same way that the early church fathers did. It also interprets scripture liturgically. This means that the passages that are publicly read on certain days of the [[liturgical year]] are significant, especially on feast days, and are intended to guide people in their interpretation as they are praying together. Since it was members of the Church who wrote the [[New Testament]] and a series of church councils that decided the biblical canon, the Orthodox believe that the Church should also be the final authority in its interpretation. This often includes allegorical interpretations.

The [[pesher]] method of interpretation, which views biblical passages as coded representations of events current to the writing of the passage, was recently (1992) put forward by Barbara Thiering, Ph.D. It is not taken seriously by most experts.

==The Bible and history==
The absence of independent evidence confirming some of the biblical narratives has caused some scholars to question the accuracy or even the historicity of these accounts. For instance, many historians view the Biblical patriarchs, Moses, King David, and King Solomon as little more than legendary figures, though possibly based on historical events and persons. Today there are two loosely defined schools of thought with regard to the historicity of the Bible (biblical minimalism and biblical maximalism) with many in between, in addition to the traditional religious reading of the Bible. This subject is discussed in its own entry, [[The Bible and history]].

Several professors of archeology claim that many stories in the Old Testament, including important chronicles about Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and others, were actually made up for the first time by scribes hired by King Josiah (7th century BCE) in order to rationalize monotheistc belief in Yahweh. Evidently, the neighboring countries that kept many written records, such as Egypt, Assyria, etc., have no writings about the stories of the Bible or its main characters before 650 BCE. Such claims are detailed in "Who Were the Early Israelites?" by William G. Dever, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI (2003). Another such book by Neil A. Silberman and colleagues is "The Bible Unearthed," Simon and Schuster, New York (2001).

== The supernatural in monotheistic religions ==
Many modern [[Scientific skepticism|skeptical]] readers of the Bible hold that its authors gradually reinterpreted historical and natural events as miraculous or supernatural. The article on [[The supernatural in monotheistic religions]] thus concerns itself with the junction between monotheistic religions, such as [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]] and the supernatural.
----

==See also==
* [[American Bible Society]]
* [[British and Foreign Bible Society]]
* [[The Bible and history]]
* [[Bible and reincarnation]]
* [[Bible errata]]
* [[Bible translations]]
* [[Biblical canon]]
* [[Biblical inerrancy]]
* [[Books of the Bible]]
* [[Dating the Bible]]
* [[Ecumenical council]]
* [[First Bible Stories]]
* [[Gutenberg Bible]]
* [[History of the English Bible]]
* [[Jefferson Bible]]
* [[Jewish Biblical exegesis]]
* [[Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible]]
* [[Koran]]
* [[List of Biblical names]]
* [[List of Biblical passages]]
* [[List of Bible passages of other than theological interest]]
* [[List of movies based on the Bible]]
* [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]
* [[Study Bible]]
* [[Tanakh]]
* [[The Sword Project]]
* [[Ten Commandments]]
* [[William Morgan (Bible translator)]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.chc.org.sg City Harvest Bible Training Center]
*[http://www.daybydaybible.com DayByDay Bible - Daily Bible Reading] - Bible in a Year Website
*[http://www.biblekeeper.com Bible Keeper - Online Bible Study Tools] - Index of several online Bibles in many languages.
*[http://thebibletool.com/ The Bible Tool] - contains a huge collection of bible texts, commentaries, glossaries, and dictionaries.
*[http://bible.gospelcom.net/ The Bible Gateway] - Free online Bible in many translations and encompassing literally 40 different languages.
* [http://www.blueletterbible.org Blue Letter Bible] - On-line interactive reference library with tools to usefully dig into original meanings of words in original Biblical languages.
*[http://www.christnotes.org/bible.asp Bible Search] - multiple translations of the Bible in searchable format
*[http://king-james-bible.classic-literature.co.uk/ King James Bible ] - HTML version of this title.
*[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/10 King James Bible] - plain vanilla text from [[Project Gutenberg]]
*[http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/ The Skeptic's Annotated Bible] - a version of the Bible annotated from a skeptical point of view.
*[http://www.bible.org/netbible/ The New English Translation] - The first Bible made for the Internet.
*[http://online.recoveryversion.org/ The Recovery Version New Testament] - a recent translation (1991) produced by [[Living Stream Ministries]] ; includes extensive footnotes prepared by [[Witness Lee]], founder of [[Living Stream Ministries]], cross references, and outlines for Christian study
*[http://www.ebible.org/ The World English Bible] - a Public Domain (no copyright) Modern English translation of the Holy Bible, based on the American Standard Version of the Holy Bible first published in 1901, the Biblia Hebraica Stutgartensa Old Testament, and the Greek Majority Text New Testament. It is in draft form, and currently being edited for accuracy and readability.
*[http://davies-linguistics.byu.edu/polyglot/ The Polyglot Bible] - allows the user to view parallel versions of the Bible in numerous ancient and modern languages.
*[http://www.ccel.org/bible_names/title.html "An Interpreting Dictionary of Scripture Proper Names"] - from ''Hitchcock's New and Complete Analysis of the Holy Bible''
*[http://cyberbuzz.gatech.edu/catholic/scriptures/saxon-bible.html Old English Bible] - Links to portions of the Bible in Old English.
*[http://www.centerplace.org/hs/iv/ "The Inspired Version"] - by Joseph Smith Jr.
*[http://www.flamingfire.com/bible.html The Flaming Fire Illustrated Bible] - a wikipedia-like attempt to illustrate each verse of the Bible.
*[http://www.thereverend.com/brick_testament The Brick Testament] - Scenes from the Bible staged by Lego characters
*[http://www.wikibible.com Wiki Bible] - future home of wiki bible (currently it is just a search engine of Bible Tools)
*[http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible,_English,_King_James King James Version] - at WikiSource
*[http://vulsearch.sourceforge.net/ VulSearch: Latin Vulgate freeware with Douay-Rheims English text]
*[http://www.biblekeeper.com Bibliology] - The Doctrine of the Written Word.
*[http://www.watchtower.org/library/rbi8/ New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures] - New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures in the Web
*[http://www.ccreadbible.org/ John Duns Scotus Bible Reading Promotion Center] - website to promote Chinese Catholic bible reading.
*[http://digidol.llgc.org.uk/METS/BWM00001/beibl?locale=en Welsh language Bible of 1588] View digital images of the entire Bible online (digital images of the actual book printed in 1588).
*[http://en.thinkexist.com/quotes/bible/ Bible Quotes]

=== Catholic Online Bibles ===
*[http://www.scriptours.com/bible/ Online Douay-Rheims Bible]
*[http://www.drbo.org/ Douay-Rheims Bible Online] - Complete text with the Challoner footnotes, index and search engine.
*[http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/index.htm The New American Bible] - Catholic translation authorized by the United States Council of Catholic Bishops.
*[http://www.ccreadbible.org/Chinese%20Bible/ The Chinese Catholic Bible] - Chinese translation of Catholic Bible.

==References==

This text was slightly edited from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_bible The Bible]''. Retrieved Sept. 28, 2004.

Bible

2004-09-29T09:06:25Z

Phos: ref added

The '''Bible''' is the primary sacred [[scripture]] of both the [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] religions. These scriptures are compilations of what were originally separate documents (called "[[book]]s") written over a long period of time. The first selection, which later formed the Jewish Bible ([[Tanakh]]) consisted of 39 books. Later additions after the birth of Jesus made up the [[New Testament]] made up of 27 Books.

<div style="float:right; width:303px; margin-right:1em; margin-left:5em;text-align:center;">[[image:Bible.jpg|A bookshelf full of Bibles]]</div>

==Overview==
The Jewish, or [[Hebrew Bible]], consists of the five books of [[Moses]] (the [[Torah]] or [[Pentateuch]]), a section called "Prophets" ([[Neviim]]), and a third section called "Writings" (also [[Ketuvim]] or Hagiographa). The term "[[Tanakh]]" is a Hebrew acronym formed from these three names. Though the Hebrew Bible is predominantly in [[Biblical Hebrew]], it has some small portions in [[Biblical Aramaic]].

The Christian Bible contains the entirety of the [[Septuagint]] (Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures from the second century B.C., called by Christians the [[Old Testament]]), along with a set of later writings known as the [[New Testament]]. Most [[Protestant]]s) omit some of these works, roughly following the second century A.D. Jewish canon called the Tanakh, but with some reorderings. Within Christianity, there is not complete agreement on what the Christian Bible contains, that is, on the [[Biblical canon]]. However, this only extends to a few books — there is no dispute as to the majority of [[books of the Bible]].

The various books of the New Testament were written in [[koine Greek]]. Early Christian Bibles used texts of the Old Testament dependent on the Greek Septuagint, which differs in places from the primarily Hebrew [[Masoretic text]]. Most modern [[translation]]s of the Old Testament are based primarily on the Masoretic text. Some modern editions of the Old Testament also adopt different readings found in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]. For more information, see the entry on [[Bible translations]].

Synopsis: The Hebrew scriptures of the Bible - portions of which contain stories traditionally held to be historical accounts of much of the early history of the Hebrew Nation - teach that there is one [[God]], [[Jehovah]], "Creator of Heaven and Earth" who created Man "in his own image", and details the relationship between Man and his Creator.

For Christians, the Bible continues - with the advent of [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] - the story begun in the Hebrew scriptures, and is both a primary source of religious doctrine and a foundation for their spiritual beliefs. Some religious sects, notably, several of the Protestant Christian sects, believe the Bible to be the ultimate and authoritative guide in all spiritual matters, by a principle referred to as [[sola scriptura]].

==Definition of Biblical terms==
The [[English language|English]] word "Bible" means "book of books" (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "books", ''biblia:''
'' '''βιβλια''' '' ). A book of the Bible is an established group of writings. For example, the book of [[Psalms]] consists of 150 songs (151 in the Septuagint), while the book of [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]] is a half-page letter. [[Biblical canon|Canon]] refers to the accepted books of the Bible differentiated from other sacred writings not accepted as part of the canon, which are not accepted as part of the Bible. Catholics and Orthodox call writings that they do not accept [[Apocrypha]]; Protestants call those writings they do not accept but that Catholics and Orthodox do Apocrypha or [[Deuterocanonical]], and call other writings that neither accepts [[Pseudepigrapha]]. The ''Protestant Bible'' consists of 66 books. The Roman Catholic version, including the Deuterocanonical books, counts altogether 76 books, while the Eastern Orthodox version includes 77 or 78. (4 Maccabees is sometimes included in an appendix, sometimes not.)

==Description of the Bible==
The [[Tanakh| Hebrew Bible (Tanakh)]] is divided into 3 sections, the Law ([[Torah]]), the Prophets, the Writings. The translated, modified and re-ordered version of the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] is called the [[Old Testament]] in the Christian Bible. The Christian Bible includes the Old Testament plus the New Testament, which chronicles the doings of [[Jesus]] and the reaction to them. The New Testament is divided into the four [[Gospel]]s, History (Acts of the Apostles), the Letters to Christian churches by [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] and other [[apostle]]s, and the [[Book of Revelation]].

See [[Books of the Bible]]

==Bible Canon - Which books are biblical?==

In addition to the diverse traditions concerning which books belong in the Canon of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible, modern scholarship proposes alternative views concerning the authenticity of books, and of texts within books. See the entries on the [[Biblical canon]], [[Higher criticism]] and [[Textual criticism]].

==Biblical versions and translations==
In scholarly writing, ancient translations are frequently referred to as 'versions', with the term 'translation' being reserved for medieval or modern translations. Information about Bible versions is given below, while [[Bible translations]] can be found on a separate page.

===Tanakh===
The oldest books of the Bible are the [[Pentateuch]], also known as the [[Torah]]. They are written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and are also titled the 'Books of Moses'. Traditionally Judaism and Christianity held that these books were actually written by the prophet [[Moses]], but many today believe that the current form of the Torah came about by a redactor bringing together several earlier, distinct sources. This idea is called the [[documentary hypothesis]].

In addition to the Torah, as noted above, the Jewish scriptures include the [[Neviim|Nevi'im]] ("prophets") and the [[Ketuvim]] ("writings"), the combined collection being designated by the Hebrew acronym "Tanakh".

The original text of the Tanakh was in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], with some portions in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]. From the 800s to the 1400s rabbinic Jewish scholars known as the Masoretes compared the text of all known Biblical manuscripts, in an effort to create a unified and standardized text; a series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as [[Masoretic Text]]s (MT). The Masoretes also added vowel points (called nikud) to the text, since the original text only contained consonants. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation, since words can differ only in their vowels, and thus the text can vary depending upon the choice of vowels to be inserted. In antiquity there were other variant readings which were popular, some of which have survived in the Samaritan Pentateuch, the [[Dead Sea scrolls]], and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient translations to other languages.

By the beginning of the common era, most Jews no longer spoke Hebrew, but spoke [[Greek language|Greek]] or [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] instead. Thus they made translations or paraphrases into these languages. The most important of the translations into the Greek was the [[Septuagint]], though other translations were made as well. The Septuagint contains several additional passages, and whole additional books, compared to what was eventually compiled as the masoretic texts. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or variants that the Masoretes did not accept. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than was once thought. While there are no surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew text on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that it was a different textual tradition than the one that eventually became the basis for the Masoretic texts.

The Jews also produced non-literal translations or paraphrases known as [[targum]]s, primarily in Aramaic. They frequently expanded on the text with additional details taken from Jewish oral tradition.

Early Christians produced translations of the Hebrew Bible into several languages; their biblical text was the Septuagint, which was translated by a number of Jews into Greek over several decades starting in the second century B.C.E. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important to the Church in the West, while in the Greek-speaking East, they continued to use the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.

The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or [[Vetus Latina]]. Exactly who translated it is unknown, but internal evidence suggests it is the product of several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included the Septuagint additions.

As a translation the Old Latin was far from ideal, and so [[Jerome]] was commissioned to produce the [[Vulgate]] translation as a replacement. Jerome based his translation on the Hebrew rather than the Septuagint. He was of the opinion that the Septuagint additions were of doubtful value, but he included them due to the demands of the church. He did not, however, translate the additional books anew; the Vulgate for these books is identical to the Old Latin. The Vulgate became the official translation of the [[Catholicism| Roman Catholic]] church.

===New Testament===
The majority of scholars believe the [[New Testament]] was originally composed in Greek. There are a number of different textual traditions of the New Testament. The three main traditions are sometimes called the [[Western text-type]], the [[Alexandrian text-type]], and [[Byzantine text-type]], and together they comprise the majority of New Testament manuscripts. There are also several ancient translations into other languages, most important of which are the Syriac (including the [[Peshitta]] and the [[Diatessaron]] gospel harmony) and the Latin (both the Vetus Latina and the Vulgate).

A minority of scholars believe the Greek New Testament is actually a translation of an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] original. Of these, some accept the so called "[[Syriac]]" [[Peshitta]] as the original, while others take a more critical approach to reconstructing the original text. For more on this view, see [[Aramaic primacy]].

The earliest critical edition of the New Testament is the '[[Textus Receptus]]' (Latin for 'received text') compiled by the humanist [[Desiderius Erasmus]]. It is largely Byzantine in character. The Textus Receptus was for many centuries the standard critical edition of the New Testament, only losing that position after the discovery of manuscripts such as the [[Codex Sinaiticus]] and the [[Codex Vaticanus]]. There are some who believe that many or all of the changes introduced by later critical editions are incorrect, and that the Textus Receptus is still the best critical edition available. A similar but distinct argument is sometimes made for the [[Majority Text]].

For a more detailed account of the New Testament's development, see the relevant section of [[Biblical canon]].

===Chapters and verses ===
The [[masoretic]] Hebrew text contains verse endings as an important feature. According to the Jewish talmudic tradition, the verse endings are of ancient origin. The [[masoretic]] textual tradition also contains section endings called ''parashiyot'', which are indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section") or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the ''parashiyot'' is usually thematic. The ''parashiyot'' are not numbered.

In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian [[masoretic]] manuscripts such as the [[Aleppo codex]]) an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed Hebrew Bibles. In this system, the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must ''always'' begin at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections ''never'' start at the beginning of a new line.

Another related feature of the [[masoretic]] text is the division of the ''sedarim''. This division is not thematic, but is rather almost entirely based upon the ''quantity'' of text.

The Byzantines also introduced a chapter division of sorts, called ''Kephalaia''. It is not identical to the present chapters.

The current division of the Bible into chapters, however, and the verse numbers within the chapters, have no basis in any ancient textual tradition. Rather, they are medieval Christian inventions. They were later adopted by the Jews too as technical references within the Hebrew text. Such technical references became crucial to medieval rabbis in the historical context of forced debates with Christian clergy (who used the chapter and verse numbers), especially in late medieval Spain. Chapter divisions were first used by Jews in a 1330 manuscript, and for a printed edition in 1516. However, for the past generation most Jewish editions of the complete [[Hebrew Bible]] have made a systematic effort to relegate chapter and verse numbers to the margins of the text.

The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has often elicited severe criticism (from both traditionalists and modern scholars alike). Critics charge that the text is often divided into chapters in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate points within the narrative, and that it encourages citing passages out of context, in effect turning the Bible into a kind of textual quarry for clerical citations. Nevertheless, even the critics admit that the chapter divisions and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.

[[Stephen Langton]] is reputed to have been the first person to put the chapter divisions into a Vulgate edition of the Bible in 1205. They came into the Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the 1400s. [[Robert Estienne]] (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chaper; his verse numbers entered printed editions in 1565 (New Testament) and 1571 (Hebrew Bible).[http://www.fuller.edu/ministry/berean/chs_vss.htm][http://www.theexaminer.org/history/chap6.htm]

== Biblical interpretation==
(Jewish, Christian, Islamic opinion of the text. Eastern. Western, influence of philosophy, fundamentalism, patristic interpretation, medieval interpretation, Reformation, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, inerrancy, biblical theology, inspiration, rationalism, translations, hermeneutics )

A wealth of additional stories and legends amplifying the accounts in the [[Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible) can be found in the Jewish genre of rabbinical exegesis known as [[Midrash]].

Throughout antiquity and the medieval periods, allegorical methods of interpretation were popular. The earliest use of these was probably [[Philo Judaeus]], who attempted to make Jewish halakah palatable to the Greek mind by interpreting it as symbolising philosophical doctrines. Allegorical interpretation was adopted by Christians, and continued in popularity until a reaction against it during the Reformation, and it has not since found much favour in [[Western Christianity]].

The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] generally follows a patristic method of interpretation, attempting to interpret scripture in the same way that the early church fathers did. It also interprets scripture liturgically. This means that the passages that are publicly read on certain days of the [[liturgical year]] are significant, especially on feast days, and are intended to guide people in their interpretation as they are praying together. Since it was members of the Church who wrote the [[New Testament]] and a series of church councils that decided the biblical canon, the Orthodox believe that the Church should also be the final authority in its interpretation. This often includes allegorical interpretations.

The [[pesher]] method of interpretation, which views biblical passages as coded representations of events current to the writing of the passage, was recently (1992) put forward by Barbara Thiering, Ph.D. It is not taken seriously by most experts.

==The Bible and history==
The absence of independent evidence confirming some of the biblical narratives has caused some scholars to question the accuracy or even the historicity of these accounts. For instance, many historians view the Biblical patriarchs, Moses, King David, and King Solomon as little more than legendary figures, though possibly based on historical events and persons. Today there are two loosely defined schools of thought with regard to the historicity of the Bible (biblical minimalism and biblical maximalism) with many in between, in addition to the traditional religious reading of the Bible. This subject is discussed in its own entry, [[The Bible and history]].

Several professors of archeology claim that many stories in the Old Testament, including important chronicles about Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and others, were actually made up for the first time by scribes hired by King Josiah (7th century BCE) in order to rationalize monotheistc belief in Yahweh. Evidently, the neighboring countries that kept many written records, such as Egypt, Assyria, etc., have no writings about the stories of the Bible or its main characters before 650 BCE. Such claims are detailed in "Who Were the Early Israelites?" by William G. Dever, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI (2003). Another such book by Neil A. Silberman and colleagues is "The Bible Unearthed," Simon and Schuster, New York (2001).

== The supernatural in monotheistic religions ==
Many modern [[Scientific skepticism|skeptical]] readers of the Bible hold that its authors gradually reinterpreted historical and natural events as miraculous or supernatural. The article on [[The supernatural in monotheistic religions]] thus concerns itself with the junction between monotheistic religions, such as [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]] and the supernatural.
----

==See also==
* [[American Bible Society]]
* [[British and Foreign Bible Society]]
* [[The Bible and history]]
* [[Bible and reincarnation]]
* [[Bible errata]]
* [[Bible translations]]
* [[Biblical canon]]
* [[Biblical inerrancy]]
* [[Books of the Bible]]
* [[Dating the Bible]]
* [[Ecumenical council]]
* [[First Bible Stories]]
* [[Gutenberg Bible]]
* [[History of the English Bible]]
* [[Jefferson Bible]]
* [[Jewish Biblical exegesis]]
* [[Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible]]
* [[Koran]]
* [[List of Biblical names]]
* [[List of Biblical passages]]
* [[List of Bible passages of other than theological interest]]
* [[List of movies based on the Bible]]
* [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]
* [[Study Bible]]
* [[Tanakh]]
* [[The Sword Project]]
* [[Ten Commandments]]
* [[William Morgan (Bible translator)]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.chc.org.sg City Harvest Bible Training Center]
*[http://www.daybydaybible.com DayByDay Bible - Daily Bible Reading] - Bible in a Year Website
*[http://www.biblekeeper.com Bible Keeper - Online Bible Study Tools] - Index of several online Bibles in many languages.
*[http://thebibletool.com/ The Bible Tool] - contains a huge collection of bible texts, commentaries, glossaries, and dictionaries.
*[http://bible.gospelcom.net/ The Bible Gateway] - Free online Bible in many translations and encompassing literally 40 different languages.
* [http://www.blueletterbible.org Blue Letter Bible] - On-line interactive reference library with tools to usefully dig into original meanings of words in original Biblical languages.
*[http://www.christnotes.org/bible.asp Bible Search] - multiple translations of the Bible in searchable format
*[http://king-james-bible.classic-literature.co.uk/ King James Bible ] - HTML version of this title.
*[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/10 King James Bible] - plain vanilla text from [[Project Gutenberg]]
*[http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/ The Skeptic's Annotated Bible] - a version of the Bible annotated from a skeptical point of view.
*[http://www.bible.org/netbible/ The New English Translation] - The first Bible made for the Internet.
*[http://online.recoveryversion.org/ The Recovery Version New Testament] - a recent translation (1991) produced by [[Living Stream Ministries]] ; includes extensive footnotes prepared by [[Witness Lee]], founder of [[Living Stream Ministries]], cross references, and outlines for Christian study
*[http://www.ebible.org/ The World English Bible] - a Public Domain (no copyright) Modern English translation of the Holy Bible, based on the American Standard Version of the Holy Bible first published in 1901, the Biblia Hebraica Stutgartensa Old Testament, and the Greek Majority Text New Testament. It is in draft form, and currently being edited for accuracy and readability.
*[http://davies-linguistics.byu.edu/polyglot/ The Polyglot Bible] - allows the user to view parallel versions of the Bible in numerous ancient and modern languages.
*[http://www.ccel.org/bible_names/title.html "An Interpreting Dictionary of Scripture Proper Names"] - from ''Hitchcock's New and Complete Analysis of the Holy Bible''
*[http://cyberbuzz.gatech.edu/catholic/scriptures/saxon-bible.html Old English Bible] - Links to portions of the Bible in Old English.
*[http://www.centerplace.org/hs/iv/ "The Inspired Version"] - by Joseph Smith Jr.
*[http://www.flamingfire.com/bible.html The Flaming Fire Illustrated Bible] - a wikipedia-like attempt to illustrate each verse of the Bible.
*[http://www.thereverend.com/brick_testament The Brick Testament] - Scenes from the Bible staged by Lego characters
*[http://www.wikibible.com Wiki Bible] - future home of wiki bible (currently it is just a search engine of Bible Tools)
*[http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible,_English,_King_James King James Version] - at WikiSource
*[http://vulsearch.sourceforge.net/ VulSearch: Latin Vulgate freeware with Douay-Rheims English text]
*[http://www.biblekeeper.com Bibliology] - The Doctrine of the Written Word.
*[http://www.watchtower.org/library/rbi8/ New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures] - New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures in the Web
*[http://www.ccreadbible.org/ John Duns Scotus Bible Reading Promotion Center] - website to promote Chinese Catholic bible reading.
*[http://digidol.llgc.org.uk/METS/BWM00001/beibl?locale=en Welsh language Bible of 1588] View digital images of the entire Bible online (digital images of the actual book printed in 1588).
*[http://en.thinkexist.com/quotes/bible/ Bible Quotes]

=== Catholic Online Bibles ===
*[http://www.scriptours.com/bible/ Online Douay-Rheims Bible]
*[http://www.drbo.org/ Douay-Rheims Bible Online] - Complete text with the Challoner footnotes, index and search engine.
*[http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/index.htm The New American Bible] - Catholic translation authorized by the United States Council of Catholic Bishops.
*[http://www.ccreadbible.org/Chinese%20Bible/ The Chinese Catholic Bible] - Chinese translation of Catholic Bible.

[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint texts]]
[[Category:Christian Science texts]]
[[Category:Religious texts]]

[[af:Bybel]]
[[cs:Bible]]
[[da:Biblen]]
[[de:Bibel]]
[[es:Biblia]]
[[et:Piibel]]
[[eo:Biblio]]
[[fr:Bible]]
[[hr:Biblija]]
[[id:Alkitab]]
[[it:Bibbia]]
[[ia:Biblia]]
[[la:Biblia]]
[[nl:Bijbel]]
[[ja:聖書]]
[[pl:Biblia]]
[[pt:Bíblia]]
[[ru:Библия]]
[[ro:Biblia]]
[[simple:Bible]]
[[fi:Raamattu]]
[[sv:Bibeln]]
[[sw:Biblia]]
[[uk:Біблія]]
[[zh-cn:圣经]]

==References==

This text was originally taken from: Wikipedia. (2004). ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_bible The Bible]''. Retrieved Sept. 28, 2004.

Bible

2004-09-29T09:04:04Z

Phos: this is from wikipedia - I need to add the reference back

The '''Bible''' is the primary sacred [[scripture]] of both the [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] religions. These scriptures are compilations of what were originally separate documents (called "[[book]]s") written over a long period of time. The first selection, which later formed the Jewish Bible ([[Tanakh]]) consisted of 39 books. Later additions after the birth of Jesus made up the [[New Testament]] made up of 27 Books.

<div style="float:right; width:303px; margin-right:1em; margin-left:5em;text-align:center;">[[image:Bible.jpg|A bookshelf full of Bibles]]</div>

==Overview==
The Jewish, or [[Hebrew Bible]], consists of the five books of [[Moses]] (the [[Torah]] or [[Pentateuch]]), a section called "Prophets" ([[Neviim]]), and a third section called "Writings" (also [[Ketuvim]] or Hagiographa). The term "[[Tanakh]]" is a Hebrew acronym formed from these three names. Though the Hebrew Bible is predominantly in [[Biblical Hebrew]], it has some small portions in [[Biblical Aramaic]].

The Christian Bible contains the entirety of the [[Septuagint]] (Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures from the second century B.C., called by Christians the [[Old Testament]]), along with a set of later writings known as the [[New Testament]]. Most [[Protestant]]s) omit some of these works, roughly following the second century A.D. Jewish canon called the Tanakh, but with some reorderings. Within Christianity, there is not complete agreement on what the Christian Bible contains, that is, on the [[Biblical canon]]. However, this only extends to a few books — there is no dispute as to the majority of [[books of the Bible]].

The various books of the New Testament were written in [[koine Greek]]. Early Christian Bibles used texts of the Old Testament dependent on the Greek Septuagint, which differs in places from the primarily Hebrew [[Masoretic text]]. Most modern [[translation]]s of the Old Testament are based primarily on the Masoretic text. Some modern editions of the Old Testament also adopt different readings found in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]. For more information, see the entry on [[Bible translations]].

Synopsis: The Hebrew scriptures of the Bible - portions of which contain stories traditionally held to be historical accounts of much of the early history of the Hebrew Nation - teach that there is one [[God]], [[Jehovah]], "Creator of Heaven and Earth" who created Man "in his own image", and details the relationship between Man and his Creator.

For Christians, the Bible continues - with the advent of [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] - the story begun in the Hebrew scriptures, and is both a primary source of religious doctrine and a foundation for their spiritual beliefs. Some religious sects, notably, several of the Protestant Christian sects, believe the Bible to be the ultimate and authoritative guide in all spiritual matters, by a principle referred to as [[sola scriptura]].

==Definition of Biblical terms==
The [[English language|English]] word "Bible" means "book of books" (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "books", ''biblia:''
'' '''βιβλια''' '' ). A book of the Bible is an established group of writings. For example, the book of [[Psalms]] consists of 150 songs (151 in the Septuagint), while the book of [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]] is a half-page letter. [[Biblical canon|Canon]] refers to the accepted books of the Bible differentiated from other sacred writings not accepted as part of the canon, which are not accepted as part of the Bible. Catholics and Orthodox call writings that they do not accept [[Apocrypha]]; Protestants call those writings they do not accept but that Catholics and Orthodox do Apocrypha or [[Deuterocanonical]], and call other writings that neither accepts [[Pseudepigrapha]]. The ''Protestant Bible'' consists of 66 books. The Roman Catholic version, including the Deuterocanonical books, counts altogether 76 books, while the Eastern Orthodox version includes 77 or 78. (4 Maccabees is sometimes included in an appendix, sometimes not.)

==Description of the Bible==
The [[Tanakh| Hebrew Bible (Tanakh)]] is divided into 3 sections, the Law ([[Torah]]), the Prophets, the Writings. The translated, modified and re-ordered version of the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] is called the [[Old Testament]] in the Christian Bible. The Christian Bible includes the Old Testament plus the New Testament, which chronicles the doings of [[Jesus]] and the reaction to them. The New Testament is divided into the four [[Gospel]]s, History (Acts of the Apostles), the Letters to Christian churches by [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] and other [[apostle]]s, and the [[Book of Revelation]].

See [[Books of the Bible]]

==Bible Canon - Which books are biblical?==

In addition to the diverse traditions concerning which books belong in the Canon of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Bible, modern scholarship proposes alternative views concerning the authenticity of books, and of texts within books. See the entries on the [[Biblical canon]], [[Higher criticism]] and [[Textual criticism]].

==Biblical versions and translations==
In scholarly writing, ancient translations are frequently referred to as 'versions', with the term 'translation' being reserved for medieval or modern translations. Information about Bible versions is given below, while [[Bible translations]] can be found on a separate page.

===Tanakh===
The oldest books of the Bible are the [[Pentateuch]], also known as the [[Torah]]. They are written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and are also titled the 'Books of Moses'. Traditionally Judaism and Christianity held that these books were actually written by the prophet [[Moses]], but many today believe that the current form of the Torah came about by a redactor bringing together several earlier, distinct sources. This idea is called the [[documentary hypothesis]].

In addition to the Torah, as noted above, the Jewish scriptures include the [[Neviim|Nevi'im]] ("prophets") and the [[Ketuvim]] ("writings"), the combined collection being designated by the Hebrew acronym "Tanakh".

The original text of the Tanakh was in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], with some portions in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]. From the 800s to the 1400s rabbinic Jewish scholars known as the Masoretes compared the text of all known Biblical manuscripts, in an effort to create a unified and standardized text; a series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as [[Masoretic Text]]s (MT). The Masoretes also added vowel points (called nikud) to the text, since the original text only contained consonants. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation, since words can differ only in their vowels, and thus the text can vary depending upon the choice of vowels to be inserted. In antiquity there were other variant readings which were popular, some of which have survived in the Samaritan Pentateuch, the [[Dead Sea scrolls]], and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient translations to other languages.

By the beginning of the common era, most Jews no longer spoke Hebrew, but spoke [[Greek language|Greek]] or [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] instead. Thus they made translations or paraphrases into these languages. The most important of the translations into the Greek was the [[Septuagint]], though other translations were made as well. The Septuagint contains several additional passages, and whole additional books, compared to what was eventually compiled as the masoretic texts. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or variants that the Masoretes did not accept. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than was once thought. While there are no surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew text on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that it was a different textual tradition than the one that eventually became the basis for the Masoretic texts.

The Jews also produced non-literal translations or paraphrases known as [[targum]]s, primarily in Aramaic. They frequently expanded on the text with additional details taken from Jewish oral tradition.

Early Christians produced translations of the Hebrew Bible into several languages; their biblical text was the Septuagint, which was translated by a number of Jews into Greek over several decades starting in the second century B.C.E. Translations were made into Syriac, Coptic and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important to the Church in the West, while in the Greek-speaking East, they continued to use the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.

The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or [[Vetus Latina]]. Exactly who translated it is unknown, but internal evidence suggests it is the product of several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included the Septuagint additions.

As a translation the Old Latin was far from ideal, and so [[Jerome]] was commissioned to produce the [[Vulgate]] translation as a replacement. Jerome based his translation on the Hebrew rather than the Septuagint. He was of the opinion that the Septuagint additions were of doubtful value, but he included them due to the demands of the church. He did not, however, translate the additional books anew; the Vulgate for these books is identical to the Old Latin. The Vulgate became the official translation of the [[Catholicism| Roman Catholic]] church.

===New Testament===
The majority of scholars believe the [[New Testament]] was originally composed in Greek. There are a number of different textual traditions of the New Testament. The three main traditions are sometimes called the [[Western text-type]], the [[Alexandrian text-type]], and [[Byzantine text-type]], and together they comprise the majority of New Testament manuscripts. There are also several ancient translations into other languages, most important of which are the Syriac (including the [[Peshitta]] and the [[Diatessaron]] gospel harmony) and the Latin (both the Vetus Latina and the Vulgate).

A minority of scholars believe the Greek New Testament is actually a translation of an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] original. Of these, some accept the so called "[[Syriac]]" [[Peshitta]] as the original, while others take a more critical approach to reconstructing the original text. For more on this view, see [[Aramaic primacy]].

The earliest critical edition of the New Testament is the '[[Textus Receptus]]' (Latin for 'received text') compiled by the humanist [[Desiderius Erasmus]]. It is largely Byzantine in character. The Textus Receptus was for many centuries the standard critical edition of the New Testament, only losing that position after the discovery of manuscripts such as the [[Codex Sinaiticus]] and the [[Codex Vaticanus]]. There are some who believe that many or all of the changes introduced by later critical editions are incorrect, and that the Textus Receptus is still the best critical edition available. A similar but distinct argument is sometimes made for the [[Majority Text]].

For a more detailed account of the New Testament's development, see the relevant section of [[Biblical canon]].

===Chapters and verses ===
The [[masoretic]] Hebrew text contains verse endings as an important feature. According to the Jewish talmudic tradition, the verse endings are of ancient origin. The [[masoretic]] textual tradition also contains section endings called ''parashiyot'', which are indicated by a space within a line (a "closed" section") or a new line beginning (an "open" section). The division of the text reflected in the ''parashiyot'' is usually thematic. The ''parashiyot'' are not numbered.

In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian [[masoretic]] manuscripts such as the [[Aleppo codex]]) an "open" section may also be represented by a blank line, and a "closed" section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed Hebrew Bibles. In this system, the one rule differentiating "open" and "closed" sections is that "open" sections must ''always'' begin at the beginning of a new line, while "closed" sections ''never'' start at the beginning of a new line.

Another related feature of the [[masoretic]] text is the division of the ''sedarim''. This division is not thematic, but is rather almost entirely based upon the ''quantity'' of text.

The Byzantines also introduced a chapter division of sorts, called ''Kephalaia''. It is not identical to the present chapters.

The current division of the Bible into chapters, however, and the verse numbers within the chapters, have no basis in any ancient textual tradition. Rather, they are medieval Christian inventions. They were later adopted by the Jews too as technical references within the Hebrew text. Such technical references became crucial to medieval rabbis in the historical context of forced debates with Christian clergy (who used the chapter and verse numbers), especially in late medieval Spain. Chapter divisions were first used by Jews in a 1330 manuscript, and for a printed edition in 1516. However, for the past generation most Jewish editions of the complete [[Hebrew Bible]] have made a systematic effort to relegate chapter and verse numbers to the margins of the text.

The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has often elicited severe criticism (from both traditionalists and modern scholars alike). Critics charge that the text is often divided into chapters in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate points within the narrative, and that it encourages citing passages out of context, in effect turning the Bible into a kind of textual quarry for clerical citations. Nevertheless, even the critics admit that the chapter divisions and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.

[[Stephen Langton]] is reputed to have been the first person to put the chapter divisions into a Vulgate edition of the Bible in 1205. They came into the Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the 1400s. [[Robert Estienne]] (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chaper; his verse numbers entered printed editions in 1565 (New Testament) and 1571 (Hebrew Bible).[http://www.fuller.edu/ministry/berean/chs_vss.htm][http://www.theexaminer.org/history/chap6.htm]

== Biblical interpretation==
(Jewish, Christian, Islamic opinion of the text. Eastern. Western, influence of philosophy, fundamentalism, patristic interpretation, medieval interpretation, Reformation, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, inerrancy, biblical theology, inspiration, rationalism, translations, hermeneutics )

A wealth of additional stories and legends amplifying the accounts in the [[Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible) can be found in the Jewish genre of rabbinical exegesis known as [[Midrash]].

Throughout antiquity and the medieval periods, allegorical methods of interpretation were popular. The earliest use of these was probably [[Philo Judaeus]], who attempted to make Jewish halakah palatable to the Greek mind by interpreting it as symbolising philosophical doctrines. Allegorical interpretation was adopted by Christians, and continued in popularity until a reaction against it during the Reformation, and it has not since found much favour in [[Western Christianity]].

The [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] generally follows a patristic method of interpretation, attempting to interpret scripture in the same way that the early church fathers did. It also interprets scripture liturgically. This means that the passages that are publicly read on certain days of the [[liturgical year]] are significant, especially on feast days, and are intended to guide people in their interpretation as they are praying together. Since it was members of the Church who wrote the [[New Testament]] and a series of church councils that decided the biblical canon, the Orthodox believe that the Church should also be the final authority in its interpretation. This often includes allegorical interpretations.

The [[pesher]] method of interpretation, which views biblical passages as coded representations of events current to the writing of the passage, was recently (1992) put forward by Barbara Thiering, Ph.D. It is not taken seriously by most experts.

==The Bible and history==
The absence of independent evidence confirming some of the biblical narratives has caused some scholars to question the accuracy or even the historicity of these accounts. For instance, many historians view the Biblical patriarchs, Moses, King David, and King Solomon as little more than legendary figures, though possibly based on historical events and persons. Today there are two loosely defined schools of thought with regard to the historicity of the Bible (biblical minimalism and biblical maximalism) with many in between, in addition to the traditional religious reading of the Bible. This subject is discussed in its own entry, [[The Bible and history]].

Several professors of archeology claim that many stories in the Old Testament, including important chronicles about Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and others, were actually made up for the first time by scribes hired by King Josiah (7th century BCE) in order to rationalize monotheistc belief in Yahweh. Evidently, the neighboring countries that kept many written records, such as Egypt, Assyria, etc., have no writings about the stories of the Bible or its main characters before 650 BCE. Such claims are detailed in "Who Were the Early Israelites?" by William G. Dever, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI (2003). Another such book by Neil A. Silberman and colleagues is "The Bible Unearthed," Simon and Schuster, New York (2001).

== The supernatural in monotheistic religions ==
Many modern [[Scientific skepticism|skeptical]] readers of the Bible hold that its authors gradually reinterpreted historical and natural events as miraculous or supernatural. The article on [[The supernatural in monotheistic religions]] thus concerns itself with the junction between monotheistic religions, such as [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]] and the supernatural.
----

==See also==
* [[American Bible Society]]
* [[British and Foreign Bible Society]]
* [[The Bible and history]]
* [[Bible and reincarnation]]
* [[Bible errata]]
* [[Bible translations]]
* [[Biblical canon]]
* [[Biblical inerrancy]]
* [[Books of the Bible]]
* [[Dating the Bible]]
* [[Ecumenical council]]
* [[First Bible Stories]]
* [[Gutenberg Bible]]
* [[History of the English Bible]]
* [[Jefferson Bible]]
* [[Jewish Biblical exegesis]]
* [[Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible]]
* [[Koran]]
* [[List of Biblical names]]
* [[List of Biblical passages]]
* [[List of Bible passages of other than theological interest]]
* [[List of movies based on the Bible]]
* [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]
* [[Study Bible]]
* [[Tanakh]]
* [[The Sword Project]]
* [[Ten Commandments]]
* [[William Morgan (Bible translator)]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.chc.org.sg City Harvest Bible Training Center]
*[http://www.daybydaybible.com DayByDay Bible - Daily Bible Reading] - Bible in a Year Website
*[http://www.biblekeeper.com Bible Keeper - Online Bible Study Tools] - Index of several online Bibles in many languages.
*[http://thebibletool.com/ The Bible Tool] - contains a huge collection of bible texts, commentaries, glossaries, and dictionaries.
*[http://bible.gospelcom.net/ The Bible Gateway] - Free online Bible in many translations and encompassing literally 40 different languages.
* [http://www.blueletterbible.org Blue Letter Bible] - On-line interactive reference library with tools to usefully dig into original meanings of words in original Biblical languages.
*[http://www.christnotes.org/bible.asp Bible Search] - multiple translations of the Bible in searchable format
*[http://king-james-bible.classic-literature.co.uk/ King James Bible ] - HTML version of this title.
*[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/10 King James Bible] - plain vanilla text from [[Project Gutenberg]]
*[http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/ The Skeptic's Annotated Bible] - a version of the Bible annotated from a skeptical point of view.
*[http://www.bible.org/netbible/ The New English Translation] - The first Bible made for the Internet.
*[http://online.recoveryversion.org/ The Recovery Version New Testament] - a recent translation (1991) produced by [[Living Stream Ministries]] ; includes extensive footnotes prepared by [[Witness Lee]], founder of [[Living Stream Ministries]], cross references, and outlines for Christian study
*[http://www.ebible.org/ The World English Bible] - a Public Domain (no copyright) Modern English translation of the Holy Bible, based on the American Standard Version of the Holy Bible first published in 1901, the Biblia Hebraica Stutgartensa Old Testament, and the Greek Majority Text New Testament. It is in draft form, and currently being edited for accuracy and readability.
*[http://davies-linguistics.byu.edu/polyglot/ The Polyglot Bible] - allows the user to view parallel versions of the Bible in numerous ancient and modern languages.
*[http://www.ccel.org/bible_names/title.html "An Interpreting Dictionary of Scripture Proper Names"] - from ''Hitchcock's New and Complete Analysis of the Holy Bible''
*[http://cyberbuzz.gatech.edu/catholic/scriptures/saxon-bible.html Old English Bible] - Links to portions of the Bible in Old English.
*[http://www.centerplace.org/hs/iv/ "The Inspired Version"] - by Joseph Smith Jr.
*[http://www.flamingfire.com/bible.html The Flaming Fire Illustrated Bible] - a wikipedia-like attempt to illustrate each verse of the Bible.
*[http://www.thereverend.com/brick_testament The Brick Testament] - Scenes from the Bible staged by Lego characters
*[http://www.wikibible.com Wiki Bible] - future home of wiki bible (currently it is just a search engine of Bible Tools)
*[http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible,_English,_King_James King James Version] - at WikiSource
*[http://vulsearch.sourceforge.net/ VulSearch: Latin Vulgate freeware with Douay-Rheims English text]
*[http://www.biblekeeper.com Bibliology] - The Doctrine of the Written Word.
*[http://www.watchtower.org/library/rbi8/ New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures] - New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures in the Web
*[http://www.ccreadbible.org/ John Duns Scotus Bible Reading Promotion Center] - website to promote Chinese Catholic bible reading.
*[http://digidol.llgc.org.uk/METS/BWM00001/beibl?locale=en Welsh language Bible of 1588] View digital images of the entire Bible online (digital images of the actual book printed in 1588).
*[http://en.thinkexist.com/quotes/bible/ Bible Quotes]

=== Catholic Online Bibles ===
*[http://www.scriptours.com/bible/ Online Douay-Rheims Bible]
*[http://www.drbo.org/ Douay-Rheims Bible Online] - Complete text with the Challoner footnotes, index and search engine.
*[http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/index.htm The New American Bible] - Catholic translation authorized by the United States Council of Catholic Bishops.
*[http://www.ccreadbible.org/Chinese%20Bible/ The Chinese Catholic Bible] - Chinese translation of Catholic Bible.

[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint texts]]
[[Category:Christian Science texts]]
[[Category:Religious texts]]

[[af:Bybel]]
[[cs:Bible]]
[[da:Biblen]]
[[de:Bibel]]
[[es:Biblia]]
[[et:Piibel]]
[[eo:Biblio]]
[[fr:Bible]]
[[hr:Biblija]]
[[id:Alkitab]]
[[it:Bibbia]]
[[ia:Biblia]]
[[la:Biblia]]
[[nl:Bijbel]]
[[ja:聖書]]
[[pl:Biblia]]
[[pt:Bíblia]]
[[ru:Библия]]
[[ro:Biblia]]
[[simple:Bible]]
[[fi:Raamattu]]
[[sv:Bibeln]]
[[sw:Biblia]]
[[uk:Біблія]]
[[zh-cn:圣经]]

Fraternitas L.V.X. Occulta

2004-09-29T08:26:35Z

Phos:

{{stub}}

Fraternitas L.V.X. Occulta, the "Fraternity of the Hidden Light," is an "Aquarian Age Mystery School" founded by Paul Clark, who serves as the Steward of the Order.

The F.L.O. traces its lineage from the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] via the Thoth-Hermes Temple of the Alpha et Omega, under the Preamonstrance of Paul Foster Case.

The stated aims of the organization threefold:

1. To act as a modern day repository of the Ancient Wisdom teachings of the Tarot, Qabalah, Alchemy, Astrology, and related Arcane Sciences;

2. To train its members for unselfish service to humanity, by providing a seeding-ground for their growth and development through group and individual applications of the Wisdom teachings;

3. To promulgate the Ancient Wisdom teachings in an effort to elevate the thought life of a humanity at large, and help herald the coming of a universal brotherhood on earth.

F.L.O. is a worldwide organization, with Lodges and study groups throughout America, Europe and Spain.

The website for the Grand Lodge of the [http://www.lvx.org Fraternity of the Hidden Light]

Esoteric Organizations

2004-09-29T08:12:28Z

Phos: added Martinism

*[[Ordo Templi Orientis]]
*[[A.'.A.'.]]
*[[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn|The Golden Dawn]]
*[[Freemasonry]]
*[[Knights Templar]]
*[[Abbey of Thelema]]

*[[Ancient Rosae Crucis]]
*[[Builders of the Adytum]]
*[[Fraternitas L.V.X. Occulta]]
*[[Fraternitas Rosae Crucis]]
*[[Theosophical Society]]
*[[Rosicrucians]]
*[[Hermetic Brotherhood of Light]]
*[[Order of the Eastern Star]]
*[[Typhonian OTO]]
*[[Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia]]
*[[Martinism]]

Fraternitas L.V.X. Occulta

2004-09-29T08:10:16Z

Phos:

Fraternitas L.V.X. Occulta, the "Fraternity of the Hidden Light," is an "Aquarian Age Mystery School" founded by Paul Clark, who serves as the Steward of the Order.

The F.L.O. traces its lineage from the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] via the Thoth-Hermes Temple of the Alpha et Omega, under the Preamonstrance of Paul Foster Case.

The stated aims of the organization threefold:

1. To act as a modern day repository of the Ancient Wisdom teachings of the Tarot, Qabalah, Alchemy, Astrology, and related Arcane Sciences;

2. To train its members for unselfish service to humanity, by providing a seeding-ground for their growth and development through group and individual applications of the Wisdom teachings;

3. To promulgate the Ancient Wisdom teachings in an effort to elevate the thought life of a humanity at large, and help herald the coming of a universal brotherhood on earth.

F.L.O. is a worldwide organization, with Lodges and study groups throughout America, Europe and Spain.

The website for the Grand Lodge of the [http://www.lvx.org Fraternity of the Hidden Light]

Fraternitas L.V.X. Occulta

2004-09-29T08:09:47Z

Phos:

Fraternitas L.V.X. Occulta, the "Fraternity of the Hidden Light," is an "Aquarian Age Mystery School" founded by Paul Clark, who serves as the Steward of the Order.

The F.L.O. traces its lineage from the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] via the Thoth-Hermes Temple of the Alpha et Omega, under the Preamonstrance of Paul Foster Case.

The stated aims of the organization threefold:

1. To act as a modern day repository of the Ancient Wisdom teachings of the Tarot, Qabalah, Alchemy, Astrology, and related Arcane Sciences;

2. To train its members for unselfish service to humanity, by providing a seeding-ground for their growth and development through group and individual applications of the Wisdom teachings;

3. To promulgate the Ancient Wisdom teachings in an effort to elevate the thought life of a humanity at large, and help herald the coming of a universal brotherhood on earth.

F.L.O. is a worldwide organization, with Lodges and study groups throughout America, Europe and Spain.

The website of the [http://www.lvx.org Fraternity of the Hidden Light]

A.'.A.'.

2004-09-29T07:57:07Z

Phos: /* Membership */

The A.'.A.'., or "Great White Brotherhood," is an organized fraternity of men and women dedicated to the spiritual advancement of humanity. The current structure of the organization was designed by [[Aleister Crowley]] and [[George Cecil Jones]] in 1906 from the ashes of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]. The A.'.A.'. revealed ''[[The Book of the Law|Liber AL vel Legis]]'' to the world through the Prophet Aleister Crowley, as well as the other [[The Holy Books of Thelema|Holy Books of Thelema]].

In ''An Account of A.'.A.'.'', Aleister Crowley writes,
:This community possesses a School, in which all who thirst for knowledge are instructed by the Spirit of Wisdom itself; and all the mysteries of nature are preserved in this school for the children of light. Perfect knowledge of nature and of humanity is taught in this school. It is from her that all truths penetrate into the world; she is the school of all who search for wisdom, and it is in this community alone that truth and the explantation of all mystery are to be found.

In "The System of the O.T.O", which originally appeared in ''Magick Without Tears'', Crowley says,

:The A.'.A.'. concerns the individual, his development, his intitiation, his passage from "Student" to "Ipsissimus"; he has no contact of any kind with any other person except the Neophyte who introduces him, and any Student or Students whom he may, after becoming a Neophyte, introduce.

==Membership==
A.'.A.'. is unique in that members officially only know their superior and any inferiors they themselves are responsible for. There are no regular group rituals (measures are taken to hide the identity of the Officers during the few Temple initiation rituals), and members are expected to work alone, consulting as needed with their superior in the Order. In this way the founders of the system hoped to avoid the many social complications and ego problems that led to the downfall of the predecessor organization, the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]. The A.'.A.'. is a spiritual organization focused on enlightenment of the individual, with a strong emphasis on maintaining the chain of initiates from teacher to student, and devoting all of ones attainments to those that follow.

In general, a member of A.'.A.'. will do the following:

*Discover for himself his own true will, and then do it, and do nothing else
*Accept the ''Book of the Law'' as the sole Rule of Life
*Acknowledge that "The word of the Law is Θελημα" and that "Love is the law, love under will."
*Acknowledge the authority of the offices of the Beast 666 and the Scarlet Woman
*Accept Ra-Hoor-Khuit as the Lord of the Aeon, and work to establish His reign upon Earth
*Work to attain the Knowledge and Conversation of his Holy Guardian Angel
*After the K&C of the HGA, to enter into the Abyss, and to emerge again therefrom

==Initiatory structure==
The A.'.A.'. consists of eleven grades devided into three groups:

''The Order of the S. S.''

:'''Ipsissimus''' (10°=1#): Beyond the comprehension of the lower degrees. An Ipsissimus is free from limitations and necessity and lives in perfect balance with Nature. Essentially, the highest mode of attainment.

:'''Magus''' (9°=2#): Attains to wisdom, declares his law and is a Master of all Magick in its greatest and highest sense. His will is entirely free from internal diversion or external opposition; His work is to create a new Universe in accordance with his Will.

:'''Magister Templi, or Master of the Temple''' (8°=3#): His principal business is to obtain a perfect understanding of the Universe. The essential Attainment is the perfect annihilation of that personality which limits and oppresses his true self. The Magister Templi is pre-eminently the Master of Mysticism, that is, His Understanding is entirely free from internal contradiction or external obscurity; His word is to comprehend the existing Universe in accordance with His own Mind.

''The Order of the R. C.''

:'''(Babe of the Abyss)'''—the link: The Grade of the Babe of the Abyss is not a Grade in the proper sense, being rather a passage between the two Orders. It is an annihilation of all the bonds that compose the self or constitute the Cosmos, a resolution of all complexities into their elements, and these thereby cease to manifest, since things are only knowable in respect of their relation to, and reaction on, other things.

:'''Adeptus Exemptus''' (7°=4#): The Adept must prepare and publish a thesis setting forth His knowledge of the Universe, and his proposals for its welfare and progress. He will thus be known as the leader of a school of thought. He will have attained all but the supreme summits of meditation, and should be already prepared to perceive that the only possible course for him is to devote himself utterly to helping his fellow creatures.

:'''Adeptus Major''' (6°=5#): His work is to use Magical Powers to support the authority of the Exempt Adept his superior. He achieves self-reliance, the proper use of Force, and the authority to govern the lower grades.

:'''Adeptus Minor''' (5°=6#): The Grade of Adeptus Minor is the main theme of the instructions of the A.'. A.'. It is characterised by the Attainment of the Knowledge and Conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel. His work is to manifest the Beauty of the Order to the world, in the way that his superiors enjoin, and his genius dictates.

''The Order of the G. D.''

:'''Dominus Liminis—the link.'''

:'''Philosophus''' (4°=7#): Is expected to complete his moral training. He is tested in Devotion to the Order.

:'''Practicus''' (3°=8#): Is expected to complete his intellectual training, and in particular to study the Qabalah.

:'''Zelator''' (2°=9#): His main work is to achieve complete success in Asana and Pranayama. He also begins to study the formula of the Rosy Cross.

:'''Neophyte''' (1°=10#): Has to acquire perfect control of the Astral Plane.

:'''Probationer''' (0°=0#): His principal business is to begin such practices as he my prefer, and to write a careful record of the same for one year.

:'''Student''': His business is to acquire a general intellectual knowledge of all systems of attainment, as declared in the prescribed books.

==Links of interest==
*[http://www.outercol.org/ Outer College Curriculum Resources]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib61.html Liber LXI vel Causae A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib33.html Liber XXXIII, An Account of A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib207.html A Syllabus of the Official Instructions of A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/aba/app2.html One Star in Sight]

==References==
*Crowley, Aleister. (1990). "An Account of A.'.A.'." ''The Equinox, I(1).'' York Beach, Me. : S. Weiser
*Crowley, Aleister. (1997). "One Star in Sight". ''Magick: Book Four.'' York Beach, Me. : S. Weiser
*Crowley, Aleister. (1982). "The System of O.T.O." ''Magick Without Tears.'' Phoenix, AZ : Falcon Press

A.'.A.'.

2004-09-29T07:53:42Z

Phos: /* Membership */

The A.'.A.'., or "Great White Brotherhood," is an organized fraternity of men and women dedicated to the spiritual advancement of humanity. The current structure of the organization was designed by [[Aleister Crowley]] and [[George Cecil Jones]] in 1906 from the ashes of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]. The A.'.A.'. revealed ''[[The Book of the Law|Liber AL vel Legis]]'' to the world through the Prophet Aleister Crowley, as well as the other [[The Holy Books of Thelema|Holy Books of Thelema]].

In ''An Account of A.'.A.'.'', Aleister Crowley writes,
:This community possesses a School, in which all who thirst for knowledge are instructed by the Spirit of Wisdom itself; and all the mysteries of nature are preserved in this school for the children of light. Perfect knowledge of nature and of humanity is taught in this school. It is from her that all truths penetrate into the world; she is the school of all who search for wisdom, and it is in this community alone that truth and the explantation of all mystery are to be found.

In "The System of the O.T.O", which originally appeared in ''Magick Without Tears'', Crowley says,

:The A.'.A.'. concerns the individual, his development, his intitiation, his passage from "Student" to "Ipsissimus"; he has no contact of any kind with any other person except the Neophyte who introduces him, and any Student or Students whom he may, after becoming a Neophyte, introduce.

==Membership==
A.'.A.'. is unique in that members officially only know their superior and any inferiors they themselves are responsible for. There are no regular group rituals (measures are taken to hide the identity of the Officers during the few Temple initiation rituals), and members are expected to work alone, consulting as needed with their superior in the Order. In this way the founders of the system hoped to avoid the many social complications and ego problems that led to the downfall of the predecessor organization, the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]].

In general, a member of A.'.A.'. will do the following:

*Discover for himself his own true will, and then do it, and do nothing else
*Accept the ''Book of the Law'' as the sole Rule of Life
*Acknowledge that "The word of the Law is Θελημα" and that "Love is the law, love under will."
*Acknowledge the authority of the offices of the Beast 666 and the Scarlet Woman
*Accept Ra-Hoor-Khuit as the Lord of the Aeon, and work to establish His reign upon Earth
*Work to attain the Knowledge and Conversation of his Holy Guardian Angel
*After the K&C of the HGA, to enter into the Abyss, and to emerge again therefrom

==Initiatory structure==
The A.'.A.'. consists of eleven grades devided into three groups:

''The Order of the S. S.''

:'''Ipsissimus''' (10°=1#): Beyond the comprehension of the lower degrees. An Ipsissimus is free from limitations and necessity and lives in perfect balance with Nature. Essentially, the highest mode of attainment.

:'''Magus''' (9°=2#): Attains to wisdom, declares his law and is a Master of all Magick in its greatest and highest sense. His will is entirely free from internal diversion or external opposition; His work is to create a new Universe in accordance with his Will.

:'''Magister Templi, or Master of the Temple''' (8°=3#): His principal business is to obtain a perfect understanding of the Universe. The essential Attainment is the perfect annihilation of that personality which limits and oppresses his true self. The Magister Templi is pre-eminently the Master of Mysticism, that is, His Understanding is entirely free from internal contradiction or external obscurity; His word is to comprehend the existing Universe in accordance with His own Mind.

''The Order of the R. C.''

:'''(Babe of the Abyss)'''—the link: The Grade of the Babe of the Abyss is not a Grade in the proper sense, being rather a passage between the two Orders. It is an annihilation of all the bonds that compose the self or constitute the Cosmos, a resolution of all complexities into their elements, and these thereby cease to manifest, since things are only knowable in respect of their relation to, and reaction on, other things.

:'''Adeptus Exemptus''' (7°=4#): The Adept must prepare and publish a thesis setting forth His knowledge of the Universe, and his proposals for its welfare and progress. He will thus be known as the leader of a school of thought. He will have attained all but the supreme summits of meditation, and should be already prepared to perceive that the only possible course for him is to devote himself utterly to helping his fellow creatures.

:'''Adeptus Major''' (6°=5#): His work is to use Magical Powers to support the authority of the Exempt Adept his superior. He achieves self-reliance, the proper use of Force, and the authority to govern the lower grades.

:'''Adeptus Minor''' (5°=6#): The Grade of Adeptus Minor is the main theme of the instructions of the A.'. A.'. It is characterised by the Attainment of the Knowledge and Conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel. His work is to manifest the Beauty of the Order to the world, in the way that his superiors enjoin, and his genius dictates.

''The Order of the G. D.''

:'''Dominus Liminis—the link.'''

:'''Philosophus''' (4°=7#): Is expected to complete his moral training. He is tested in Devotion to the Order.

:'''Practicus''' (3°=8#): Is expected to complete his intellectual training, and in particular to study the Qabalah.

:'''Zelator''' (2°=9#): His main work is to achieve complete success in Asana and Pranayama. He also begins to study the formula of the Rosy Cross.

:'''Neophyte''' (1°=10#): Has to acquire perfect control of the Astral Plane.

:'''Probationer''' (0°=0#): His principal business is to begin such practices as he my prefer, and to write a careful record of the same for one year.

:'''Student''': His business is to acquire a general intellectual knowledge of all systems of attainment, as declared in the prescribed books.

==Links of interest==
*[http://www.outercol.org/ Outer College Curriculum Resources]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib61.html Liber LXI vel Causae A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib33.html Liber XXXIII, An Account of A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib207.html A Syllabus of the Official Instructions of A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/aba/app2.html One Star in Sight]

==References==
*Crowley, Aleister. (1990). "An Account of A.'.A.'." ''The Equinox, I(1).'' York Beach, Me. : S. Weiser
*Crowley, Aleister. (1997). "One Star in Sight". ''Magick: Book Four.'' York Beach, Me. : S. Weiser
*Crowley, Aleister. (1982). "The System of O.T.O." ''Magick Without Tears.'' Phoenix, AZ : Falcon Press

A.'.A.'.

2004-09-29T07:53:20Z

Phos: /* Membership */

The A.'.A.'., or "Great White Brotherhood," is an organized fraternity of men and women dedicated to the spiritual advancement of humanity. The current structure of the organization was designed by [[Aleister Crowley]] and [[George Cecil Jones]] in 1906 from the ashes of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]. The A.'.A.'. revealed ''[[The Book of the Law|Liber AL vel Legis]]'' to the world through the Prophet Aleister Crowley, as well as the other [[The Holy Books of Thelema|Holy Books of Thelema]].

In ''An Account of A.'.A.'.'', Aleister Crowley writes,
:This community possesses a School, in which all who thirst for knowledge are instructed by the Spirit of Wisdom itself; and all the mysteries of nature are preserved in this school for the children of light. Perfect knowledge of nature and of humanity is taught in this school. It is from her that all truths penetrate into the world; she is the school of all who search for wisdom, and it is in this community alone that truth and the explantation of all mystery are to be found.

In "The System of the O.T.O", which originally appeared in ''Magick Without Tears'', Crowley says,

:The A.'.A.'. concerns the individual, his development, his intitiation, his passage from "Student" to "Ipsissimus"; he has no contact of any kind with any other person except the Neophyte who introduces him, and any Student or Students whom he may, after becoming a Neophyte, introduce.

==Membership==
A.'.A.'. is unique in that members officially only know their superior and any inferiors they themselves are responsible for. There are no regular group rituals (measures are taken during to hide the identity of the Officers during the few Temple initiation rituals), and members are expected to work alone, consulting as needed with their superior in the Order. In this way the founders of the system hoped to avoid the many social complications and ego problems that led to the downfall of the predecessor organization, the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]].

In general, a member of A.'.A.'. will do the following:

*Discover for himself his own true will, and then do it, and do nothing else
*Accept the ''Book of the Law'' as the sole Rule of Life
*Acknowledge that "The word of the Law is Θελημα" and that "Love is the law, love under will."
*Acknowledge the authority of the offices of the Beast 666 and the Scarlet Woman
*Accept Ra-Hoor-Khuit as the Lord of the Aeon, and work to establish His reign upon Earth
*Work to attain the Knowledge and Conversation of his Holy Guardian Angel
*After the K&C of the HGA, to enter into the Abyss, and to emerge again therefrom

==Initiatory structure==
The A.'.A.'. consists of eleven grades devided into three groups:

''The Order of the S. S.''

:'''Ipsissimus''' (10°=1#): Beyond the comprehension of the lower degrees. An Ipsissimus is free from limitations and necessity and lives in perfect balance with Nature. Essentially, the highest mode of attainment.

:'''Magus''' (9°=2#): Attains to wisdom, declares his law and is a Master of all Magick in its greatest and highest sense. His will is entirely free from internal diversion or external opposition; His work is to create a new Universe in accordance with his Will.

:'''Magister Templi, or Master of the Temple''' (8°=3#): His principal business is to obtain a perfect understanding of the Universe. The essential Attainment is the perfect annihilation of that personality which limits and oppresses his true self. The Magister Templi is pre-eminently the Master of Mysticism, that is, His Understanding is entirely free from internal contradiction or external obscurity; His word is to comprehend the existing Universe in accordance with His own Mind.

''The Order of the R. C.''

:'''(Babe of the Abyss)'''—the link: The Grade of the Babe of the Abyss is not a Grade in the proper sense, being rather a passage between the two Orders. It is an annihilation of all the bonds that compose the self or constitute the Cosmos, a resolution of all complexities into their elements, and these thereby cease to manifest, since things are only knowable in respect of their relation to, and reaction on, other things.

:'''Adeptus Exemptus''' (7°=4#): The Adept must prepare and publish a thesis setting forth His knowledge of the Universe, and his proposals for its welfare and progress. He will thus be known as the leader of a school of thought. He will have attained all but the supreme summits of meditation, and should be already prepared to perceive that the only possible course for him is to devote himself utterly to helping his fellow creatures.

:'''Adeptus Major''' (6°=5#): His work is to use Magical Powers to support the authority of the Exempt Adept his superior. He achieves self-reliance, the proper use of Force, and the authority to govern the lower grades.

:'''Adeptus Minor''' (5°=6#): The Grade of Adeptus Minor is the main theme of the instructions of the A.'. A.'. It is characterised by the Attainment of the Knowledge and Conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel. His work is to manifest the Beauty of the Order to the world, in the way that his superiors enjoin, and his genius dictates.

''The Order of the G. D.''

:'''Dominus Liminis—the link.'''

:'''Philosophus''' (4°=7#): Is expected to complete his moral training. He is tested in Devotion to the Order.

:'''Practicus''' (3°=8#): Is expected to complete his intellectual training, and in particular to study the Qabalah.

:'''Zelator''' (2°=9#): His main work is to achieve complete success in Asana and Pranayama. He also begins to study the formula of the Rosy Cross.

:'''Neophyte''' (1°=10#): Has to acquire perfect control of the Astral Plane.

:'''Probationer''' (0°=0#): His principal business is to begin such practices as he my prefer, and to write a careful record of the same for one year.

:'''Student''': His business is to acquire a general intellectual knowledge of all systems of attainment, as declared in the prescribed books.

==Links of interest==
*[http://www.outercol.org/ Outer College Curriculum Resources]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib61.html Liber LXI vel Causae A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib33.html Liber XXXIII, An Account of A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib207.html A Syllabus of the Official Instructions of A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/aba/app2.html One Star in Sight]

==References==
*Crowley, Aleister. (1990). "An Account of A.'.A.'." ''The Equinox, I(1).'' York Beach, Me. : S. Weiser
*Crowley, Aleister. (1997). "One Star in Sight". ''Magick: Book Four.'' York Beach, Me. : S. Weiser
*Crowley, Aleister. (1982). "The System of O.T.O." ''Magick Without Tears.'' Phoenix, AZ : Falcon Press

A.'.A.'.

2004-09-29T07:41:12Z

Phos: /* Membership */

The A.'.A.'., or "Great White Brotherhood," is an organized fraternity of men and women dedicated to the spiritual advancement of humanity. The current structure of the organization was designed by [[Aleister Crowley]] and [[George Cecil Jones]] in 1906 from the ashes of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]. The A.'.A.'. revealed ''[[The Book of the Law|Liber AL vel Legis]]'' to the world through the Prophet Aleister Crowley, as well as the other [[The Holy Books of Thelema|Holy Books of Thelema]].

In ''An Account of A.'.A.'.'', Aleister Crowley writes,
:This community possesses a School, in which all who thirst for knowledge are instructed by the Spirit of Wisdom itself; and all the mysteries of nature are preserved in this school for the children of light. Perfect knowledge of nature and of humanity is taught in this school. It is from her that all truths penetrate into the world; she is the school of all who search for wisdom, and it is in this community alone that truth and the explantation of all mystery are to be found.

In "The System of the O.T.O", which originally appeared in ''Magick Without Tears'', Crowley says,

:The A.'.A.'. concerns the individual, his development, his intitiation, his passage from "Student" to "Ipsissimus"; he has no contact of any kind with any other person except the Neophyte who introduces him, and any Student or Students whom he may, after becoming a Neophyte, introduce.

==Membership==
A.'.A.'. is unique in that members officially only know their superior and any inferiors they themselves are responsible for. There are no regular group rituals, and members are expected to work alone, consulting as needed with their superior in the Order. In this way the founders of the system hoped to avoid the many social complications and ego problems that led to the downfall of the predecessor organization, the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]].

In general, a member of A.'.A.'. will do the following:

*Discover for himself his own true will, and then do it, and do nothing else
*Accept the ''Book of the Law'' as the sole Rule of Life
*Acknowledge that "The word of the Law is Θελημα" and that "Love is the law, love under will."
*Acknowledge the authority of the offices of the Beast 666 and the Scarlet Woman
*Accept Ra-Hoor-Khuit as the Lord of the Aeon, and work to establish His reign upon Earth
*Work to attain the Knowledge and Conversation of his Holy Guardian Angel
*After the K&C of the HGA, to enter into the Abyss, and to emerge again therefrom

==Initiatory structure==
The A.'.A.'. consists of eleven grades devided into three groups:

''The Order of the S. S.''

:'''Ipsissimus''' (10°=1#): Beyond the comprehension of the lower degrees. An Ipsissimus is free from limitations and necessity and lives in perfect balance with Nature. Essentially, the highest mode of attainment.

:'''Magus''' (9°=2#): Attains to wisdom, declares his law and is a Master of all Magick in its greatest and highest sense. His will is entirely free from internal diversion or external opposition; His work is to create a new Universe in accordance with his Will.

:'''Magister Templi, or Master of the Temple''' (8°=3#): His principal business is to obtain a perfect understanding of the Universe. The essential Attainment is the perfect annihilation of that personality which limits and oppresses his true self. The Magister Templi is pre-eminently the Master of Mysticism, that is, His Understanding is entirely free from internal contradiction or external obscurity; His word is to comprehend the existing Universe in accordance with His own Mind.

''The Order of the R. C.''

:'''(Babe of the Abyss)'''—the link: The Grade of the Babe of the Abyss is not a Grade in the proper sense, being rather a passage between the two Orders. It is an annihilation of all the bonds that compose the self or constitute the Cosmos, a resolution of all complexities into their elements, and these thereby cease to manifest, since things are only knowable in respect of their relation to, and reaction on, other things.

:'''Adeptus Exemptus''' (7°=4#): The Adept must prepare and publish a thesis setting forth His knowledge of the Universe, and his proposals for its welfare and progress. He will thus be known as the leader of a school of thought. He will have attained all but the supreme summits of meditation, and should be already prepared to perceive that the only possible course for him is to devote himself utterly to helping his fellow creatures.

:'''Adeptus Major''' (6°=5#): His work is to use Magical Powers to support the authority of the Exempt Adept his superior. He achieves self-reliance, the proper use of Force, and the authority to govern the lower grades.

:'''Adeptus Minor''' (5°=6#): The Grade of Adeptus Minor is the main theme of the instructions of the A.'. A.'. It is characterised by the Attainment of the Knowledge and Conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel. His work is to manifest the Beauty of the Order to the world, in the way that his superiors enjoin, and his genius dictates.

''The Order of the G. D.''

:'''Dominus Liminis—the link.'''

:'''Philosophus''' (4°=7#): Is expected to complete his moral training. He is tested in Devotion to the Order.

:'''Practicus''' (3°=8#): Is expected to complete his intellectual training, and in particular to study the Qabalah.

:'''Zelator''' (2°=9#): His main work is to achieve complete success in Asana and Pranayama. He also begins to study the formula of the Rosy Cross.

:'''Neophyte''' (1°=10#): Has to acquire perfect control of the Astral Plane.

:'''Probationer''' (0°=0#): His principal business is to begin such practices as he my prefer, and to write a careful record of the same for one year.

:'''Student''': His business is to acquire a general intellectual knowledge of all systems of attainment, as declared in the prescribed books.

==Links of interest==
*[http://www.outercol.org/ Outer College Curriculum Resources]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib61.html Liber LXI vel Causae A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib33.html Liber XXXIII, An Account of A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib207.html A Syllabus of the Official Instructions of A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/aba/app2.html One Star in Sight]

==References==
*Crowley, Aleister. (1990). "An Account of A.'.A.'." ''The Equinox, I(1).'' York Beach, Me. : S. Weiser
*Crowley, Aleister. (1997). "One Star in Sight". ''Magick: Book Four.'' York Beach, Me. : S. Weiser
*Crowley, Aleister. (1982). "The System of O.T.O." ''Magick Without Tears.'' Phoenix, AZ : Falcon Press

A.'.A.'.

2004-09-29T07:37:25Z

Phos: /* Membership */

The A.'.A.'., or "Great White Brotherhood," is an organized fraternity of men and women dedicated to the spiritual advancement of humanity. The current structure of the organization was designed by [[Aleister Crowley]] and [[George Cecil Jones]] in 1906 from the ashes of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]. The A.'.A.'. revealed ''[[The Book of the Law|Liber AL vel Legis]]'' to the world through the Prophet Aleister Crowley, as well as the other [[The Holy Books of Thelema|Holy Books of Thelema]].

In ''An Account of A.'.A.'.'', Aleister Crowley writes,
:This community possesses a School, in which all who thirst for knowledge are instructed by the Spirit of Wisdom itself; and all the mysteries of nature are preserved in this school for the children of light. Perfect knowledge of nature and of humanity is taught in this school. It is from her that all truths penetrate into the world; she is the school of all who search for wisdom, and it is in this community alone that truth and the explantation of all mystery are to be found.

In "The System of the O.T.O", which originally appeared in ''Magick Without Tears'', Crowley says,

:The A.'.A.'. concerns the individual, his development, his intitiation, his passage from "Student" to "Ipsissimus"; he has no contact of any kind with any other person except the Neophyte who introduces him, and any Student or Students whom he may, after becoming a Neophyte, introduce.

==Membership==
A.'.A.'. is unique in that members officially only know their superior and any inferiors they themselves are responsible for. There are no regular group rituals, and members work alone, consulting as needed with their superior in the Order. In this way the founders of the system hoped to avoid the many social complications and ego problems that led to the downfall of the predecessor organization, the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]].

In general, a member of A.'.A.'. will do the following:

*Discover for himself his own true will, and then do it, and do nothing else
*Accept the ''Book of the Law'' as the sole Rule of Life
*Acknowledge that "The word of the Law is Θελημα" and that "Love is the law, love under will."
*Acknowledge the authority of the offices of the Beast 666 and the Scarlet Woman
*Accept Ra-Hoor-Khuit as the Lord of the Aeon, and work to establish His reign upon Earth
*Work to attain the Knowledge and Conversation of his Holy Guardian Angel
*After the K&C of the HGA, to enter into the Abyss, and to emerge again therefrom

==Initiatory structure==
The A.'.A.'. consists of eleven grades devided into three groups:

''The Order of the S. S.''

:'''Ipsissimus''' (10°=1#): Beyond the comprehension of the lower degrees. An Ipsissimus is free from limitations and necessity and lives in perfect balance with Nature. Essentially, the highest mode of attainment.

:'''Magus''' (9°=2#): Attains to wisdom, declares his law and is a Master of all Magick in its greatest and highest sense. His will is entirely free from internal diversion or external opposition; His work is to create a new Universe in accordance with his Will.

:'''Magister Templi, or Master of the Temple''' (8°=3#): His principal business is to obtain a perfect understanding of the Universe. The essential Attainment is the perfect annihilation of that personality which limits and oppresses his true self. The Magister Templi is pre-eminently the Master of Mysticism, that is, His Understanding is entirely free from internal contradiction or external obscurity; His word is to comprehend the existing Universe in accordance with His own Mind.

''The Order of the R. C.''

:'''(Babe of the Abyss)'''—the link: The Grade of the Babe of the Abyss is not a Grade in the proper sense, being rather a passage between the two Orders. It is an annihilation of all the bonds that compose the self or constitute the Cosmos, a resolution of all complexities into their elements, and these thereby cease to manifest, since things are only knowable in respect of their relation to, and reaction on, other things.

:'''Adeptus Exemptus''' (7°=4#): The Adept must prepare and publish a thesis setting forth His knowledge of the Universe, and his proposals for its welfare and progress. He will thus be known as the leader of a school of thought. He will have attained all but the supreme summits of meditation, and should be already prepared to perceive that the only possible course for him is to devote himself utterly to helping his fellow creatures.

:'''Adeptus Major''' (6°=5#): His work is to use Magical Powers to support the authority of the Exempt Adept his superior. He achieves self-reliance, the proper use of Force, and the authority to govern the lower grades.

:'''Adeptus Minor''' (5°=6#): The Grade of Adeptus Minor is the main theme of the instructions of the A.'. A.'. It is characterised by the Attainment of the Knowledge and Conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel. His work is to manifest the Beauty of the Order to the world, in the way that his superiors enjoin, and his genius dictates.

''The Order of the G. D.''

:'''Dominus Liminis—the link.'''

:'''Philosophus''' (4°=7#): Is expected to complete his moral training. He is tested in Devotion to the Order.

:'''Practicus''' (3°=8#): Is expected to complete his intellectual training, and in particular to study the Qabalah.

:'''Zelator''' (2°=9#): His main work is to achieve complete success in Asana and Pranayama. He also begins to study the formula of the Rosy Cross.

:'''Neophyte''' (1°=10#): Has to acquire perfect control of the Astral Plane.

:'''Probationer''' (0°=0#): His principal business is to begin such practices as he my prefer, and to write a careful record of the same for one year.

:'''Student''': His business is to acquire a general intellectual knowledge of all systems of attainment, as declared in the prescribed books.

==Links of interest==
*[http://www.outercol.org/ Outer College Curriculum Resources]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib61.html Liber LXI vel Causae A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib33.html Liber XXXIII, An Account of A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib207.html A Syllabus of the Official Instructions of A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/aba/app2.html One Star in Sight]

==References==
*Crowley, Aleister. (1990). "An Account of A.'.A.'." ''The Equinox, I(1).'' York Beach, Me. : S. Weiser
*Crowley, Aleister. (1997). "One Star in Sight". ''Magick: Book Four.'' York Beach, Me. : S. Weiser
*Crowley, Aleister. (1982). "The System of O.T.O." ''Magick Without Tears.'' Phoenix, AZ : Falcon Press

User:Phos

2004-09-29T04:03:20Z

Phos:

I am Frater Κ.Φ., Secretary of [http://www.marin-oto.org Mons Abiegnus Oasis O.T.O.] in Northern California, Freemason, and eternal student of the Mysteries.

[mailto:suti@pair.com contact]
[http://www.livejournal.com/users/ph0s lj]

User talk:Phos

2004-09-29T03:43:42Z

Phos:

Well, that was weird...seems like you and I were editing A.'.A.'. at the same time. Strange. Anyway, please feel free to look over my entry and make any corrections you think are needed...I'm no student of AA. [[User:Ash|Ash]]

That's what happened! lol. I enjoyed your additions - good stuff.

User:Phos

2004-09-29T03:42:26Z

Phos:

I am Frater Κ.Φ., Secretary of [http://www.marin-oto.org Mons Abiegnus Oasis O.T.O.] in Northern California, Freemason, and eternal student of the western and eastern Mysteries.

[mailto:suti@pair.com contact]
[http://www.livejournal.com/users/ph0s lj]

A.'.A.'.

2004-09-29T03:37:14Z

Phos:

The A.'.A.'., or "Great White Brotherhood," is an organized fraternity of men and women dedicated to the spiritual advancement of humanity. The current structure of the organization was designed by [[Aleister Crowley]] and [[George Cecil Jones]] in 1906 from the ashes of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]. The A.'.A.'. revealed ''[[The Book of the Law|Liber AL vel Legis]]'' to the world through the Prophet Aleister Crowley, as well as the other [[Holy Books of Thelema]].

In ''An Accont of A.'.A.'.'', Aleister Crowley writes,
:This community possesses a School, in which all who thirst for knowledge are instructed by the Spirit of Wisdom itself; and all the mysteries of nature are preserved in this school for the children of light. Perfect knowledge of nature and of humanity is taught in this school. It is from her that all truths penetrate into the world; she is the school of all who search for wisdom, and it is in this community alone that truth and the explantation of all mystery are to be found.

In "The System of the O.T.O", which originally appeared in ''Magick Without Tears'', Crowley says,

:Well, here's the essential difference ab ovo usque ad mala: the A.'.A.'. concerns the individual, his development, his intitiation, his passage from "Student" to "Ipsissimus"; he has no contact of any kind with any other person except the Neophyte who introduces him, and any Student or Students whom he may, after becoming a Neophyte, introduce. The details of this "Pilgram's Progress" are very fully set forth in One Star in Sight; and I should indeed be stupid and presumptuous to try to do better than that.

==Initiatory structure==
The A.'.A.'. consists of eleven grades devided into three groups:

''The Order of the S. S.''

:'''Ipsissimus''' (10°=1#): Beyond the comprehension of the lower degrees. An Ipsissimus is free from limitations and necessity and lives in perfect balance with Nature. Essentially, the highest mode of attainment.

:'''Magus''' (9°=2#): Attains to wisdom, declares his law and is a Master of all Magick in its greatest and highest sense. His will is entirely free from internal diversion or external opposition; His work is to create a new Universe in accordance with his Will.

:'''Magister Templi, or Master of the Temple''' (8°=3#): His principal business is to obtain a perfect understanding of the Universe. The essential Attainment is the perfect annihilation of that personality which limits and oppresses his true self. The Magister Templi is pre-eminently the Master of Mysticism, that is, His Understanding is entirely free from internal contradiction or external obscurity; His word is to comprehend the existing Universe in accordance with His own Mind.

''The Order of the R. C.''

:'''(Babe of the Abyss)'''—the link: The Grade of the Babe of the Abyss is not a Grade in the proper sense, being rather a passage between the two Orders. It is an annihilation of all the bonds that compose the self or constitute the Cosmos, a resolution of all complexities into their elements, and these thereby cease to manifest, since things are only knowable in respect of their relation to, and reaction on, other things.

:'''Adeptus Exemptus''' (7°=4#): The Adept must prepare and publish a thesis setting forth His knowledge of the Universe, and his proposals for its welfare and progress. He will thus be known as the leader of a school of thought. He will have attained all but the supreme summits of meditation, and should be already prepared to perceive that the only possible course for him is to devote himself utterly to helping his fellow creatures.

:'''Adeptus Major''' (6°=5#): His work is to use Magical Powers to support the authority of the Exempt Adept his superior. He achieves self-reliance, the proper use of Force, and the authority to govern the lower grades.

:'''Adeptus Minor''' (5°=6#): The Grade of Adeptus Minor is the main theme of the instructions of the A.'. A.'. It is characterised by the Attainment of the Knowledge and Conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel. His work is to manifest the Beauty of the Order to the world, in the way that his superiors enjoin, and his genius dictates.

''The Order of the G. D.''

:'''Dominus Liminis—the link.'''

:'''Philosophus''' (4°=7#): Is expected to complete his moral training. He is tested in Devotion to the Order.

:'''Practicus''' (3°=8#): Is expected to complete his intellectual training, and in particular to study the Qabalah.

:'''Zelator''' (2°=9#): His main work is to achieve complete success in Asana and Pranayama. He also begins to study the formula of the Rosy Cross.

:'''Neophyte''' (1°=10#): Has to acquire perfect control of the Astral Plane.

:'''Probationer''' (0°=0#): His principal business is to begin such practices as he my prefer, and to write a careful record of the same for one year.

:'''Student''': His business is to acquire a general intellectual knowledge of all systems of attainment, as declared in the prescribed books.

==Links of interest==
*[http://www.outercol.org/ Outer College Curriculum Resources]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib61.html Liber LXI vel Causae A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib33.html Liber XXXIII, An Account of A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib207.html A Syllabus of the Official Instructions of A.'.A.'.]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/aba/app2.html One Star in Sight]

==References==
*Crowley, Aleister. ''An Account of A.'.A.'.''
*Crowley, Aleister. (1997). "One Star in Sight". ''Magick: Book Four.'' York Beach, Me. : S. Weiser

Esoteric Organizations

2004-09-29T03:29:02Z

Phos: S.R.I.A. addition

Esoteric Organizations

2004-09-29T03:27:34Z

Phos: added F.L.O.

User:Phos

2004-09-29T03:16:40Z

Phos: